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( ':f'Zr^ -^'^_ hVZ>^ ■■•■''iSa'; 
A COMPENDIUM OF ENG-JLISH GRAMMAR, BY SAMUEi. KIMKHAM; 

D£tign$d, not to be studied, but to be spread before ike learner in parsifig, previous to his having the definitions and rules committed to 




STYMOLOair. 



A Nouu ii the nam* of any person, place, 
or thing. 

A common noun is the name of a sort or 
species of things. 

A jii oper noun is thenaine or" an individual. 

i. noun signifying many, is called u collnc- 
liit noun, or^ouf^ cf muUihide 

The masculine gender denotes tke male 

The feminine gender- denotes tho female 

The neuter gender denotes things wh 
havo no sex. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person 
thing which is spoken to. 



The third 



pers 



denotes tho 



person 



thmg which is spoken of. 

'1 he singular number implies but one. 

'I he pill rut number implies more than one. 

Tho xomiyiative case denotes the actor or 
subject of the verb. 

The possessive case denotes tli« possessor 
of something. 

The objcciim case expresses th* object of 
an action or of a relation. 

TBRBS. 

A Verb is a word which signifiM to be, to 

DO, 01 to SUFFER. 

An active verb expresses action or energy. 

An active verb is <»• ' ' 
passes over from the subject or nominative to 
an object. 

An active verb is intransilive when the ac- 
tion does not terminate on an object 

\ pasnve verb denotes action received or 
endured by the person or thing which is its 

A ntiitcr verb expresses neither action nor 
p libion, but being, or a state of being. 

A erbs arc called regular when they form 
then imperfect tense of the indicative mood, 
and their perfect participle, by adding to the 
pie-^ent tense, ed, or d only when the verb 
ends m e 

Verba are irreg-ular when their imperfect 

ten-e and perfect participle do not end in ed. 

The indicative mood simply indicates or 

hing, or asks a question. 

junciive mood expresses action, 

being, in a doubtful or conditional 

The imperative mood is used for command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 

The potential mood implies possibility, 
liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obliga- 
tion. 

The infinitive mood expresses action, pas- 
or being, in an unhmited manner, hav- 




ing no nominative, consequently, neither per- 
son nor number. 

The present tense denotes an action or 
event in present time. 

The imperfect tense denotes a past action 
OT event, however distant. 

The perfect tense denotes past time, and 
also conveys an allusion to the present. 

The pluperfect tense represents a past ac- 
tion or event that transpired before some 
other past time specified. 

The first future tense denotes a future ac- 
tion or event. 

T!\i& second future tense represents a future 
action that will be fully accomplished, at or 
before the time of another future action or 
event 

ARTICLES. 

An Article is a word prefixed to nouns to 
limit their signification. 

The indefinite article limits the noun to one 
of a kind, but to no particular one. 

The defmile article generally limits the 
noun to a particular object, or collection of 
objects. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun 
to express its quality or kind. 

The fosilive degree eipressse the quahty 
of an object without any increase or diminu- 
tion. 

The comparative degree increases or les- 
senp the positive in signification. 

Tlia supei'lative degree increases or lessen 
the positive to the highest or lowest degree. 

Words used in counting, are called nmneral 
adjectives of the cardinal kind. 

Words used in numbering, are called »«- 
meral adjectives of the ordinal kind. 
PARTICIPLES. 
Jl Participle is a word derived from a 
veib, and partakes of the nature of a verb, 
and also of an adjective. 

The present participle denotes action or 
behg continued, but not perfected. 

The perfect participle denotes action or 
being perfected or finished. 

The compound participle implies action or 

being completed before the time referred to. 

, ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the 

sense of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or- 

another adverb. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
A Preposition is a word which seiTesto 
connect words, and show the relation between 
thpm. 

PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 

nmu, and generally to avoid the too frequent 

ripetivion of the*ame word. 

Personal Pronouns are those which de- 



note the persons of the nouns for which they 
stand. 

Adjective Pronouns are a kind of ad- 
jectives which point out nouns by some dis- 
tinct specification. 

The distributive adjective pronouns are 
those which denote the persons or things that 
make up a number, each taken separately 
and singly. 

The demonsirulive are those which pre- 
cisely point out the subject to which they re- 
late. 

The indefimite are those which point out 
their subject in an indefinite or general man- 
ner. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, 
in general, to some word or phrase going be- 
fore, which is called the antecedent. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, joining 
two or more simple sentences into one com- 
pound sentence : it sometimes connects only 
words. 

A copulative conjuncHon serves to connect 
and continue a sentence by joining on a 
member which expresses an addition, a sup- 
position, or a cause. 

A conjunction disjunctive serves to connect 
and continue a sentence by joining on a 
member which expresses opposition of mean- 
ing. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Am Interjeciion is a word used to ex- 
press «ome passion or emotion of the speaker. 



RULES or SYNTAX. 



the nominative case 

NOTE. Every nominative case except the case ab- 
solute and independent, should belong to some verb, 
expressed or understood. 

RULE 7. Two or more nouns, or nouns 
and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are 
put, by apposition, in the same case. 

RULE 8. Two or more nouns, or noun: 
and pronouns, in the singular number, con 
riected by copulative conjunctions, must have 
erbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreoLig with 
them in the plural. 

NOTE. When eucli or every relates to two or moi 
nominatives in the singular, although connected by 
copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in 



of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word the preposition o/sft" it. The and o/maat both be 
or phrase containing the answer to tlie qnes- uBeJ or both b» omitted. 



RULE 1. The article a or tm agrees witli 
nouns in the singular number only. 

RULE 2. The definite article the belongs 
to nouns in the singular or plural number. 

RULE 3. The nominative case eoverns 
the verb. ^ 

RULE 4. The verb must agree with its 
nominative in number and person. 
NOTE 1. Evsry verb, when it is not in the infinj. 
fifed™"" """ "" ' "°™"'''''^> ^pressed or 
3. ^Vhen averb comes between two nouns, either 
which may be considered as the subject of the 
firmation, it must agree with that wliich is th« 
ore niturally its subject. 

RULE 5. When an address is made, the 
noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nom- 
inative case independent. 
Jb'tra^Je/with™ " "'^^P™'^'^''' when it has no 
2. Interjections require the objective case of a oro- 
lun of the ^rsl pereon aficr them, but t!ie nomina- 
Uve of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person. 
RULE 6. A noun or pronoun placed be- 
foie a paiticiple, and being independent of the 



RULE 9. Two or more nouns, or nouns 
and pronouns, in tlie singular number, con- 
nected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have 
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with 
them in the singular. 

NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and 
pronoun, of different persons, aro disjunctively con- 
nected, the verb must agree in person with that which 
is placed nearest to it. 

2. Wlren a disjunctive occurs between a singular 
noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb must 
agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which sliould 
generally be placed ne.Yt to the verb. 

RULE 10. A collective noun or noun of 
multitude, conveying unity of idea, may have 
a verb or pronoun agreeing ^vith it in the sin- 
gular. 

RULE 11. A noun of multitude convey- 

>■ plurality of idea, may hate a verb or pro- 
noun agreeing with it in the pkral. 

RULE 12. A noun or pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case, is governed bylhenounit pos- 
sesses. 

NOTE 4. Participles frequentlygovern nouns and 
pronouns in the possessive case. 

RULE 13. Personal promuns must agree 
with the nouns for which theystand, in gender 

NOTE. You, though frequentlytaployed to repre- 
sent a singular noun, is always jilid m form : there- 
tcre the verb connected witli it sliolild be plural. 

RULE 14. Relative pronJuns agree with 
their antecedents in gender, person, and nuni- 



uuii for its subsequent, which subsequent must 
agree in case with the interrogative. 

RULE 18. Adjectives belong to, and qual- 
ify nouns, expressed or understood. 
NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong 

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, 
must agree in number with their adjectj 
tlie cardinal kind. 

3. Adjectives sometimes belong 

4. Adjectives are often used to'lnodify the sense of 
other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to e.'jptess 
the quality of things in connejaon with the action by 
which that quality is produced. 

When an adjective is preceded by 






that quality is produced, 
l^hen an adjective is pret 
and the noun is understood, the two words 'may be 
considered an adverbial phrase. 

RULE 19. Adjective pronouns belong to 
nouns, expressed or understood. 
NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns 

pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, 
neither, another, and one, agree with nouns in the sin- 
gular number only. 

RULE 20. Active-transitive verbs 

! objective case, 

RULE 21. The verb to be may have the 
same case after it as before it. 

NOTE. When nouns or pronouns next preceding 
and following the verb (o be, signify the same tiling. 
they are in apposition, and, therelbre, in the smne cose. 

RULE 22. Active-intransitive and passive 
verbs, the verb to become, and other 

rbs, have the same case after them as be- 
fore them, when both words refer to, and eig. 



i goverj 



NOTE. When the relative is piceded by two an- 
tecedents of different persons, tl^ relative and the 
th^t antecedent which 



) must agree in person with tl 



RULE 15. The relative isthe nominative 
case to the verb, when no ntiininative comes 
between it and the verb. i 

RULE 16. When a nominative comes be- 
tween the relative and the verb, the relative is 
governed by the following verb, or by some 
other word in its own membeW the seutence. 
NOTE I. Who, w/.;c4, '»/.«(, th« relative that, and 
heir compounds, lo/io.ne.e,-, «,/,o„i„„ &,. though 
m tho ob ective case, are aKviiva'^i.. 'i i..r.„. .S. 



always 

2. Every relative must have an linte™, 
: relates, either expres-ed oi inmlfcd. 
RULE 17. -When the iel( 



|tive pionoun is 



nify, the same thing. 
NOTE 1. Active-intransiti 

ime a transitive form, and govern the objective case 
2 According to a usage too common in colloquiai 
style, an agent not literally the correct one, is em 
ployed as the nominative to a passive verb, which 
ca.uses the verb to be followed by an ohjectim case 
"o'siti'on P°^^''''l''y "f supplymg before it a pre- 

RULE 23. A verb in the infinitive mood, 
may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, 
participle, or pronoun. 

RULE extra, a verb in the infinitive 
mood, refers to some noun or pronoun as its 
subject or actor. 

NOTE 
dependent of the 

2. The 
conjunctions or adverbs, 

RULE 24. The infinitive mood, or part 
of a sentence, is frequently put as the nom- 
inative case to a verb, or the object of ,an 
active-transitive verb. 



RULE 25. The verbs which follow Ud 
we, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and 
their participles, are m the infinitive radod 
without the sign to prefixed. 

RULE 26. Participles have the same go- 
vernment as the verbs have from which they 



1 infinitive mood absolute stands in- 
• -* t of the sep'ence. 

mood is sometimes governed by 



e derived 

NOTE The pre^sent participle with the definite 
' ' , and must ha\e 



1 llic before it, becomes a i 



RULE 27. The present participle refers 
to some noun or pronoun, denotmg the sub- 
ject or actor. 

RULE 28. The perfect participle belongs, 
like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, 
expressed or understood. 

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs, have the same 
case after them as before them. 

•2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be 
considered as a substantive or part.cipial phrase, which 
phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of 
a verb or preposition. 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense 
of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their 
form, care must be taken that they be not indiscrim- 
inately used. 

RULE 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, par- 
ticiples, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjec- 
tives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxibary 
and the verb. * 

2. When the qualifying word which followi a verb, 
expresses quality, it must be an adjectiTC, but when it 
expresses manner, an adverb should be used. If the 
verb to be can be substituted for the one employed, an 
adjective should follow, and not an adverb. 

RULE 30. Two negatives destroy one 
another, and are generally equivalent to an 
affirmative. < ■ 

RULE 31. Prepositions govern the ob- 
jective case. 

RULE 32. Home, and nouns signifying 
distance, time ivhen, how long, &c. are gene- 
rally governed by a preposition understood. 

NOTE 1. The prepositions to and for are often un- 
derstood, cliiefly before the pronouns. 

2. To or imlo is understood after like and unlike. 

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, 
quaUty, or value, are used without a governing word. 

RULE 33. Conjunctions connect nouJjs 
and pronouns in the same case. 

RULE 34. Conjunctions generally con- 
nect verbs of like moods and tenses. 

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are 
connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be 
repeated. 

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt re- 
quire the sMbjunctive moof after them. 

3. The conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whe- 
afteMhein" S™""^'^ '"I"™ "'« subjunctive mood 

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, 
reqmre the mdicative mood. 

RULE 35. A noun or pronoun following 
the conjunction than, as, or but, is nomina"- 
tive to a verb, or governed by a verb or pre- 
position, expressed or understood. 

.„l5J°,T^ '■ '''^'^ conjuncUon as, when it is connected 
with the pronoun such, many, or same, is sometUnes 
called a relative pronoun. 

„, ^' .■^" ?"'.Psis, or omission of some words, is fre- 
quently adnutted, which must be suppUed in the mind 
" 5 if J'u P"'^" grammatically. 
3. When the omission of words would obscure the 
nse or weaken its force, they must be expressed. 
-i. in the use of prenosi'ions, and words that rclnie 
each ol:her ws should pay particular regard to the 
-anincT of the Hord» or sentences which they con 
ct all the parts of a sentence should ( 
each other and a reguhr and clear cc 
rou{,hout shou'd be carefully preseried 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

IN 

FAIfllLIAR LECTrRE!i; 

ACCOMPANIED BY A 

COMPENDIUM, 

EMBRACING 

A NEW SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING^ 
A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION, 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, 
AND 

A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 

IN NOTES : 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

AN APPENDIX, AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, 

DESIGNED 
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 



BY SAMUEIi K-IIiKlIAM. 



Stereotyped by Wm. Hagar df Co., New- York. 
THIRTY-FIFTH EDITION, ENLARaED AND UVXPRDVED. 

ROCHESTER, N. Y. : 

MARSHALL &, DEAN. 

:::::::::::^ 
1833. 



yt 



\ 



s^Q 



^%^ 



SfoiUkem Dittrict ofJ^ew-York^ ss, 

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the 22d day of Augnsl, A D. jb29 
L. S. in the 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, 

Samuel Kirkham, of the said District, bath deposited in this office the 
li tie of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following 
^o wit ; 

" English Grammar in familiar lectures, accompanied by a Compendium •, 
embracing a new systematick order of Parsing, a new system of Punctuation, 
exercises m false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical Grammar in notes : 
to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the Exercises : designed for 
the use of Schools and Private Learners. By Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh 
Edition, enlarged and improved. In conformity to the act of congress of 
the United States, entitled '^an act for the encouragement of learning, by se- 
curmg the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors ( 
of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an act enti- 
tled "an act supplementary to an act entitled an act for the encouragement 
of learning, by securing the copies of n^aps, charts, and books, to the au- 
thors and "proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, 
and extendmg the benefits thereof to the aits of designing, engraving, and 
«tdiing historical and other prints." 

FRED. J. BETTS, 
Clerk of the Smithern DisU-ici oJJ^et^Ymk^ 



4i ^ it. 




ReeOMSlElVDATIONlSI. 

ll u well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new DoOKAi 
have vory little weight with the publick. Tliis is as it should be, for that work wRich 
lests more on its written testimonials, than on its intrinsick merits for support, as- 
serts no claims to permanent patronage. But recommendations which analyze the 
iiierits of a work, and which, by exhibiiing its pronuuent features in a striking light, 
are -calculated to carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is 
flieritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in this volume." 
The following are so/ne of t!ie numerous testnnonials which he has received, and for 
which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments to those literary gentlemen to whose 
liberality and politeness he is indebted for them. More than six hundred others 
presented to the author, and many of wliich are equally flattering with these, h« 
has not room to insert. 



The foUowng notice of this work is extracted from the " Western Review." This 
j-jtirnal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, author of " Francis Berrian," 
" History- & Geography of the Miss. Valley," and many oth?r popular and valuable 
works. 

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's " Grammr,r in familiar Lectures," 
but have since given it a cursory ^.erusal. If we comprehend the author's design, 
it is not so much to introduce new principles, as to render more easy and intelligible 
tliose which have been long established, and to furnish additional facilities to an ac- 
curate and thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been sue 
cessful. 

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting himself be 
fore the publick tribunal as an author, will, as far as consistent with his plan, avail 
himself of the authority of such as have written well on the subject before him. Mr. 
Kirkham has accordingly followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English 
writers on grammar, in the general principles of the science ; endeavouring, at the 
same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the writings of 
that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The most useful matter 
contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced in this ; but in the definitions 
and rules, it is simplified, and rendered much more intelligible. Though our author 
follows Mr. Murray, in the general princij)les of his work, he has, in numerous in- 
stances, differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to oe his own, and intro- 
ducing some valuaole improvements. 

A.mong these may be Mentioned some additional rules and explanatory nctes iii 
syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of explaining them, man- 
ner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the pronouns, and the use of a synop 
sis which presents the essentials of the science at one view, and is well calculated 
to afford assistance to learners. 

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have endeavour- 
ed to follow the order of nature ; and we are not able to see how he could have done 
better. The noun and verb, as being the most important parts of sjieech, are first 
explained, and afterwards those v,-hich are considered in a secondary and subordi- 
fiate character. By following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common 
among authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which they 
were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the way for conduct- 
ing the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the science. 

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our author ap- 
pears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the appearance of being learned, 
but at being understood. The clearness and perspicuity of his remarks, and their 
application to familiar objects, are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the 
understanding, of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labour of the instructer. The 
principles of the science are simplified, and rendered so perfectly easy of compre- 
hension^ we should think no ordinary mind, having such help, could find them diffi- 
■jult. It is in this particular that the work appears to possess its chief merit, and on 
his accoimt it cannot fail of being preferred to m.any others. 

It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the amiable and 
modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from the fifth edition, 
Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827. 

Tlie following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a distinguished 

Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis," J 

As afi-iend to literature, and especially to genume merit. i1 is with peculiar plt»if 

pure I allude to a n(/tice in a late paper ©f this city, in which Mr. S. Kirkham pro- 

' potfes to deliver a course of Lectures on English Grammar. To such as f«el iwl«» 

rt:stpd in acquiring a genera> and practical knowledge of tiiis lueful scieacti; «V 



* IIECOMMENDATION.1. 

opportunity is now presented which ought not to be neglected. Having myself 
witrrssed, in several instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of 
Mr. Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. The 
extensive knowledge acquired m one course by h's class in Pittsburgh,^ and the great 
proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere, are a demonstration of the utility and 
superiority of his method of reaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am 
able to bestow. 

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is predica 
ted, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed ; but the great 
merit of his work consists in the lucid iUustrations accompanying the prmciples, and 
the simple and gradual manner in wliich it conducts the learner along from step to 
step through the successive stages of the science. The explanations blended with 
the theory, are addressed to the understandmg of the pupil in a manner so familiar, 
that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest ; and whatever system is cal- 
culated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, I conceive, be productive 
of good results. In my humble opinion, the system of teaching introd'oced into this 
work, will enable a diligent pupil to acquire, without ary other aid, a practical 
knowledge of grammar, in less than one- fourth part of the time usually devoted. 

My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publickly given, with the greater 
pleasui e, on account of the literary empir'^isms which have been so extensively 
practised in many parts of the western country. 

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826. 

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersbnrgh Academy, Pa. 

Mr. Kirkham, — It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of youth, 
and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but haVe used many, of the 
different systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way ; and, sir, I do 
assUre you, without the least wish to flatter, that yourii far exceeds any I have yet 
seen. 

Your arrangement and systematick order of parsing are most excellent ; and ex- 
perJerce has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last twelve or thir- 
teen months,) that a scholar will learn more of the nature and principles of our 
language in one quarter^ from your S5'stem, than in a whole year from any other I had 
previously used. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the 
publick at large, and especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of oui 
language, are destitute of the advantages of an instructer. 

Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD. 

Chamoersburgn Academy, Feb. 12, 1825. 

From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled " The Hesperus.'* 
Mr. Kirkham, 

Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree of 
minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of the work as a 
grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have explained the ele- 
ments of gramniar, and accommodated them to the capacities of youth, is an ample 
illustration of the utility of your plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you 
have paid to an analytical developement of grammatical principles, while it is calcu- 
lated to encourage the persevera^nce of young students in the march of improvement, 
is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the literary connoisseur. I trust that 
your valuable compilation will be speedily introduced into schools and academies. 
With respect, y^iurs, 

N. R. SMITH, A. M 

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825. 

From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran Academy: — Extract 
Having carefjily examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English Granjmar 
in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses 
over our common systems, will soon convince the publick, that it is not one of thosfe 
feeble efforts of quackery which have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its deci- 
ded superiority over all other systems, consists in adapting tlie subject-matter to tho 
capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of communicating it to 
his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he can easily comprehend the natura 
and the application of every principle that comes before him. 

In short, all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so clearly,! am confident 
that even a private learner, of c<mimon docility, can, by perusing this system attei>» 
tivelj', acquire a better practical knowledge of this important branch of literature ia 
three months, than is ordinarily obtained in one year. 

JOHN E. JUNGMANN. 
Frederick, Md. Sept. 17, 1823. 



REeoMMENDATIONS. O 

Extract : from De Witt Clinton, late Gor. of New- York. 

I consider the Compemdium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a w«rK 
tpserving enouurageinent, and well calculated to facilitate the acquisition of tliis 
•stful science. DE WITT CLfNTON. 

Albany, Sept. 25,1824. 

New York, July 29, 1829. . 
S. Kirkham, Esq. — ^I have examined your Grammar with attention, an«i with a par- 
ticular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully satisfied, that it 
IS the best form in wi^ich Murray's principles have been given to tlie publick. The 
lectures are ample, and given in so familiar and easy language, as to be readily un 
de"stood, even by a tyro m grammar. 

I feel it due to you to saj', liiat I commenced the examination of your work, under 
a stong preju(lir.e asainst it, in consequence of the numerous "improved systems" 
with which the publick has been inundated, of late, most of which are by no means 
improvtments on Murray, but the productions of individuals whom a " little gram 
mar has rendered grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result 
vi'invesligtition. 
I wish you. Sir, success in your publication. 

Respectfully, EBER WHEATON, 

Pr. of Mechanick's Society SchooL 
With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Gram- 
mar, we heartily concur. NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad. 

(Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON, 
Ncwburgh, Aug. 4, 1829. (Rev.) WM. S. HEYER. 

From the Rev. C. P. Mcllvaine, and others. 
So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel Kirk- 
ham, I am well satisfied that it meets the wants of elementary schools in this branch, 
and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P. McILVAINE. 

Brooklyn, July 9, 1829. 

We f-iUy concur in the above. ANDREW HAGEMAN, 

E. M. JOHNSON. 

•EXTRACT. 

Frojn the partial examination which I have given Mr. S, Kirkham's English Gram- 
roar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the publick as the best of the class I have 
eifi seen, and as fiUing up an important and almost impassable chasm in works on 
grammatical science. D. L. CARROLL. 

Brooklyn, L. L June 29, 1829. 

We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B. B. HALLOCK, 

E. KINGSLEY, 
T. S. MAYBON. 
From A. W. Dodge, Esq. 

New- York, July 15, 1829. 

The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of instruction, 
must have taught him that tlie study of grammar, important as it is to every class 
of learners, is almost invariably a dry and uninteresting study to young beginners, 
and for the very ob''ious reason, that the systems in general use in the schools, are 
far beyond the comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is, 
that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as tasks^ and if 
committed at all, committed to the memory, without enlightening their understana- 
ings ; so that many a pupil who has been through the English grammar, is totally 
unacquainted with the nature even of the simplest parts of speech. 

The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these evils, 
and suppi}' a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously feU in the imper- 
fect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of their own language. By a 
simple, famihar, and lucid method of treating the subject, he has rendered what was 
before irksome and unprofitable, pleasing and instructive. In one word, the gram- 
mar of Mr. Kirkham furnishes a clew by which the youthful mind is guided through 
the intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns, and pronouns ; and the path which has been 
heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardour of youth, and waste 
their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its obstacles, is cleared of these ob- 
structions by this pioneer to the youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with 
friendly guide-boards to direct them in the right road. The slightest perusal of the 
work alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these remarket 
and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to ok rates uid i^tlSSmk 
Uiat it will meet the wants of the community ALLI2<[ W, TI>CSl ^JE, 

1* 



6 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829. 

Having, for gevwal years, been engaged in lecturing on the scisnce of gramuiar 
and, during this period, having thoroughly tested the merits of Mr. S. Kirkham s 
■ystem of " English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by usmg it as a text-book tot 
my classes, I take pleasure in giving this testimonial of my cordial approbation oJ 
the work. Mr. Kirkham has attempted to improve upon this branch of science, 
cniefly by unfolding and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear 
and simple, as to adapt them completely to the understanding of the young learner, 
and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pv.pil to commit the prmci- 
ples by a simultaneous applicafion of them to practical examples. The publick may 
rest assured, tha-l he has been successful in his attempt in a pre-emineni degree. I 
make this assertion under a full conviction that it will be corroborated by every 
candid judge of the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages 
of this manual. 

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the novel, the 
striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying them, the peculiar and 
advantageous arrangement of the various parts of the subject, the facilities proffered 
by the " systematick mode of parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious intro- 
duction and adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches an>i 
critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render this system 
of grammar so decidedly supeiiour to all others extant^ that, to receive general 
patronage, it needs but to be known. 

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and witnessing its 
effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in saying, luat a learner will, 
by studying this book four months without a teacher, r>btain a more clear conception 
of the nature and proper construction of words a.id phrases, than is ordinarily 
obtained in common schools and academies, in five times four months. 

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been circulated, it 
is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which iiave so long paralyzed the 
energies of the youth of our country. 

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in orthography 
and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetorick, and the improvements in tho 
illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about introducing into his elevkiNTH eoi- 
TlON, will render it quite an improvement on the former editions of this work. 

H. WINCHESTER. 
From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy. 

I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar satisfac- 
tion. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, give it a decided 
preference to any other system now in use. To point out the peculiar qualities 
which secure to it claims of which no other system can boast, would be, if required, 
perfectly easy. At present it is sufficient to remark, that it embodies all that is 
essentially excellent and useful in other systems ; whilst it is entirely free from tliat 
tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much perplex and em 
barrass the learner. 

The peculiar exce'.lence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, the simplicity of its method 
and the plainness of its illustrations. Being conducted by familiar lectures, the 
teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into agreeable contact by each lesson 
Both are improved by the same task, without the slightest suspicion, on the part ol 
the pupil, that there is any thing hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a con- 
viction, this, which must inevitably precede all effi^rls, or no proficiency will be made 
In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a practical one ; and for that reason 
if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be introduced into all our schools 
and academies. From actual experiment I can attest to the practicability of the 
plan which the author has adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced wiio 
Will take the pains to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER. 

Albany, July 10, 1829. 
Prom a communication addressed to S, Kirkham by the Rev. J. Stockton, authoi 
of the " Western Calculator" and " Western Spelling-Book." 

Dear Sir,— I am much pleased with both the plan and execution of your " English 
Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a systematick mode of parsing, cal- 
cvjlatcd alike to exercise the understanding and memory of the pupil, and also free 
the teacher from the drudgery cf continued interrogation, you have made your 
grammar what every elementary school book ought to be,— plain, systematick, and 
easy to be understood. 

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other improve- 
ments so judiciously introduced, gives it a decisive superiority over the imperfect 
grammar of Murray, now so generally used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A. M. 

Aliejjhonv-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. 

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first ventured 
on the wave of pubUck opinion, the gales of patronage which have wafted it 
along, have been far more favourable than he had reason to anticipal e. Had 
any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the demand for it would call 
forth hcenty-two thousand copies during the past year, the author would have 
considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, 
to that publick which has smiled so propitiously on his humble efforts to ad^ 
vance the cause of learning, he has endeavoured, by unremitting attention to 
the improvement of his M'ork, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable 
as his time and talents would permit. 

It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly im- 
proved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate 
and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the disadvantages of linger- 
ing under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject 
only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a busi- 
ness life, {active as far as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any 
apology for its defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to 
his credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, that 
it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed at him, 
and rerwier less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon him. Not 
that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen criticks and reviewers. Any 
compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral 
courage which he would, by no means, be willing to avow. It wo\iId, more- 
over, be prejudicial to his interest ; for he is determined, if his fife be preserv- 
ed, to avail himself of the advantages of any judicious and candid critieisn^s 
on his production, that may appear, and, two or three years hence, revise his 
work, and present to the pubhck another and a better edition. 

The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the addition 
of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, 
extensive, accurate, and lucid ; in connecting more closely with the genius 
and philosoph)' of our language, the general principles adopted ; and in add- 
ing a brief view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes. The in 
troduction into the eleventh edition, of many verbal criticisms, of addi 
tional corrections in orthography and orthoepy, of the leading principles of 
rhetorick, and of general additions and improvements in various parts of the 
work, render this edition, it is beheved,/ar preferable to any of the former 
editions of the work. 

^ Perhaps some \v\\\ regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition of 
pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations of 
this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community whose 
minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of a kind of 'philosophical ma- 
nia; and to such these notes are respectfully submitted for just what f/iey 
may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point, is, that 
they*proffer no material advantages to common learners ; but that they may 
profitably engage the attention of the curious, and' perhaps impart a degree 
of interest to the literarv connoisseur. 
New- York, August 22, 1829. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 




PAGB. 


Address to the learner 


14 


Nouns 


30 


A, an, one 65, 


124 


Gender of 


34 


And 


124 


Person of 


37 


Adjectives 37, 69 


Number of 


39 


Adverbs 


83 


Case of 41 


, 64, 128 


Agreement of words 


52 


Orthography 


19, 199 


Anomalies 


162 


Rules of 


23 


Articles 


64 


Parsing 


49 


Because 


125 


Participles 


78 


But, than, as 116, 124, 


165 


Poetry transposed 


166 


Case 


41 


Prepositions 


91 


Nominative 43, 


157 


Pronouns 


95 


Possessive 


48 


Personal 


97 


Objective 5- 


., 93 


Compound personal 


100 


Nominative case indepen- 




Adjective 


105 


dent 38, 129, 164 


J 77 


Relative 


108 


Nominative case absolute 130 


177 


Prontmciation 


201 


Apposition of cases 130 


178 


Prosody 


208 


Nominative and objective 




Provincialisms 


205 


after the verb to be 


186 


Punctuation 


209 


Active, passive, and neuter 




Rhetorick 


219 


nominatives 


157 


Rules of syntax 


175 


Conjunctions 

Conjugation of regular verbs 


118 


Sentences, definitions of 




142 


simple and compound " 119 


Derivation (all the philosophi- 




Transposition of 


124, 166 


cal notes treat of deri- 




Standard of grammatical 




vation) 27, 37, 


171 


accuracy 


17, 75 


Etymology 


26 


Syntax 


26 


Exercises m false syntax 


177 


To 


51 


In punctuatioD 


210 


Tenses 


138, 193 


Figures of speech 


222 


Signs of the 


141 


Gender 


34 


The 


64, 65 


Government 


52 


That 


65, HO 


Grammar, general division of 


17 


Terminations 20, 37, 49 


78, 136 


Philosophical 


18 


Verbs 


42, 47 


Have 143, 


155 


Active-transitive 


S4, 56 


Idioms 


162 


Aetive-intransitive 


55 


Interjections 


126 


Passive 


157 


It 


104 


Neuter 


43 


If 


122 


Defective 


159 


Kpy to the exercises 


225 


Auxiliary 


140, 153 


Letters, sounds of 


21 


Regular 


143 


Like 


75 


Irregular 


148 


Manner of meaning of words 28 


, 73 


Compound 


95, 187 


Moeds 


134 


Versification 


218 


Signs of 


141 


Worth 


75, 163 


Subjunctive 135, 145, 


155 


What, which, who 109, 


111, 114 






You 


99 



PREFACE. 



There appears lo be something assuming in the act of writing, and thmst- 
tfig into pubhck notice, a new work on a subject which has already employed 
many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, unless he believed his pro- 
duction to be, in some respects, superiour to every one of the kind which 
had preceded it ? Hence, in presenting to the publick tliis system of Eng- 
lish Grammar, the author is aware t4iat an apology will be looked for, and 
that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, must inevitably 
undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no explanatory 
effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of arrogance by 
such as are blinded by self-inter«it, or by those who are wedded to the 
doctrines and opinions of his predecessors, with them he will not attempt a 
compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent either to their praise or 
their censure. But with the candid, he is willing to negotiate an amicable 
treaty, knowing that they are always ready to enter into it on honourable 
terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the 
ments of his work on its practical utility, beUeving that, if it prove un- 
commonly successful in faciUtating the progress of youth in the march of 
mental improvement, that will be its best apology. 

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those 
learned philologists who have laboured so long, and, as many suppose, so 
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language ; and, more 
especially, when we view the labours of some of oar modern compilers, 
who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to ar- 
range those principles in such a manner as tc form a correct and an easy 
medium of mental conference ; it does, indeed, appear a little like presumption 
ibr a young man to enter upon a subject which has so frequently engaged 
Ihe attention and talents of men distinguished for their erudition. The 
author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his 
predecessors are very deficient, at least, in manner, if not in matter; and 
this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the best 
judges in community. It is admitted, that many valuable improve- 
ments have beeri made b}' some of our late writers, who havee.ideavoured 
to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner, but 
they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important ob- 
ject, ramcly, « sysiem«<?c/c order of parsing ; and nearly all have neglected 
to develope and explain the principles in such a manner as to enable the 
learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use. 

By some this system will, no doubt, be discai-ded on account of its simpti- 
city ; whilst to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommendation. 
Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to the recondite 
grammarian ; it professes not to instruct the literary connoisseur ; it presents 
no attractive graces of style to charm, no daring fliglits to astonish, no deep 
reaearcJies to gratify him ; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it at- 
tempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile min 1 in its advances m the 
path of science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and re- 
moving those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way it en- 
oeavours to render interesting and delightful a study which has hitherto been 
considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Iis leading object is to adopt a 
correct and an easy method, m which pleasure is blended with the labours of 
the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that 
shall call forth into vigorous and useful exercise, every latent energy of his 
mind ; and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the 
nature of the prirciples, and with their practical utility and application. 

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these pages 
has en \eavoured to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been 



10 PREFACE. 

to dazzle, ratlier than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at ongi 
nality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whoso 
labours have become publick stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion 
furnish better and briglitor of his own. Aware that there is, in the publick 
mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's 
fjrammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of poHcy, bul 
from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that worlc ; and, moreover 
to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that emi- 
nent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived 
that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, 
therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded tt 
those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate 
and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propen 
sity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity bj 
arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. 

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to origi 
nality ; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who would 
presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, ana 
applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he hap- 
pen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to some con- 
tained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is 
well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit correspond 
ing ideas in different minds : and hence it is not uncommon for the same 
thought to be strictly original with many writers. The author is not here at- 
tempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should he 
unjustly claim the property of another; but he wishes it to be understood, 
that a long course of teaching and investigation, has often produced in his 
mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly 
corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar 
circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, 
to be pardoned by the critick, even though he should not be willing to 
reject a good idea of his own, merely because some one else has, at some 
time or other, been blessed with the same thought. 

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of ordi 
nary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work unrea- 
sonably voluminous, treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable- 
Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of the 
science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, suffi- 
ciently extensive for all ordinary, practical purposes, and a key to the ex- 
ercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, as com- 
pletely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners. Whether this 
design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the publick 
to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it has 
become known, and the ready sale of forty thousand copies, (though withmit 
hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are favourable omens. 

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author 
has endeavoured to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking bhndly 
on trust whatever has oeen sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of 
venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at de 
fiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow ail former systems, and con- 
vince the world that all true knowledge and science are w'rapped up in a 
crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Notwithstanding the author 
is aware that publick prejudice is powerful, and that he who ventures 
much by way of innovation, will be liable^to defeat his own purpose by fall 
ing into neglect ; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to inves 
tigate the subject critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles 
only as he deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to efl^ect th© 
©bject he had in view. But what his system claims as imurovements oa 



\f 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 1 

Bihcrs, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in 
Du method adopted of communicating a knoioledge of them to the mind of the 
leanur. That the work is defective, the autlior is fully sensible : and he is 
Free to acknowledije, that its defects ar?e, in part, funn nia owr. want of 
judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious cause of 
Lhom, namely, ihe anomalies and imperfections with which the language 
ibounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so 
rtidely different opinions on many important points ; and,moreover, the reason 
that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably 
settled. But principles ought not to be rejected because they admit of ex- 
ceptions. — H'J who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure 
3f our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks. 

To conform, in our orthography and orthoepy, to some admitted stand - 
ird, the author deems a consideration of sufficient importance to justify hira 
n introducing into his work an article on eacli of these subjects, in which 
many words that are often misspelled or mispronounced, are corrected 9.c- 
^ordiijgto a work,* which, in his estimation, justly claims a decisive prefer- 
jnce, in point o^ accuracy, to any other Dictionary of th« English language. 

'^^* Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be 
lestioyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not have 
)ccasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it ac- 
companies : and besides, it it be destroyed, he will find all the definitions 
md rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of Lectures. 

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 

As tliis work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrange- 
ment essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed 
mproper for the author to give some directions to those who may be dis- 
josed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the order of 
jarsing, will not consider it new, but blend it with those long since adopted, 
some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat similar ; but in 
10 instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regidar 
•ystematick order. ' 

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to 
nterrogate the pupil as he proceeds ; or else he is permitted to parse without 
riving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought to apply 
iefinitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematick arrangement 
f questions as his guide. The systematick order laid down in this work, if 
; arsued by the pupil, coiapcls him to apply every definition and every rule 
hdt appertains to each word he parses, without having a question put to 
lim by the teacher ; and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as ne 
foes along. This course enables the learner to proceed independently ; 
md proves, at the same time, a great reUef to the instructer. The conve- 
lience and advantage of this method, are far greater than can be easily 
onceived by one who is unacquainted with it. The author is, therefore, 
inxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been established, of 
Ausing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules without any si- 
nultaneous application of them to practical examples, immediately abol- 
shed. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course 
)f drudgery ; for the young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few 
veeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly committed, 
iimnly by applying them in parsing. 

Ii this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every teaclier 
(vho is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the advantage of 
»is pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any former method. This 

* The work alluded to, is " Wr,!ker»s Dictionary," revised and corrected by Mr 



la HINTS TO TEACHERS. ] 

belief is founded on tb^ advantages which the author himself has expe- 
rienced irom it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction 
of youth and adults- By pursuing this system, he can, with less labour, 
advance a pupil farther m a practical knowledge of this abstruse science^ in 
two months, than he could in one year when he taught in the " old way." It 
is presumed that no instructer, who once gives this system a fair trial, will 
doubt the truth of this assertion. 

Perhaps some will," on a first view of the work, disapprove of the trans- 
position of many parts ; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, 
although the author has not followed the common " artificial and unnatural 
anangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endea- 
voured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, " the order of the under- 
standing." 

The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, hut by 
reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He ought 
then to parse, according to the systematick wder, the examples given for 
that purpose ; in doing which, as pieviously stated, he has an opportunity 
of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech 
included in the examples. 

The Compendium, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed 
out comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered 
an " Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the 
young student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very 
commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem 
rather tedious ; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, 
that a pupil will learn more by parsing jive words critically, and explaining 
them fully, than he would by parsing jft/if?/ words superficially, and without 
understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursues this 
plan, is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson 
of definitions committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discover- 
ing their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other direc- 
tions necessary for the learner in school, as well as for the private learner, 
will be given in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble ef- 
forts prove a saving of much time and expense to those young persons who 
may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them eas- 
ily to acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important 
and desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized; but 
should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the acqui- 
sition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient ambition and 
perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contents, it is hoped, 
that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not be thrown upon him. 

To those enterpvising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lecture on 
this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints by way of encourage- 
ment. 

Any juilicious instructer of grammar, if he take the trouble to make himself fa- 
miliar with the contents of the following pages, will find it an easy matter to pursue 
this system. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient. Instead of causing his 
pupils to acquire a knovledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense ap- 
phcation, let him communicate it verbally ; that is, let him first take up one part of 
speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and ex'^lain all its properties, not only by 
adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by giving others that may occur 
to his mmd as he proceeds. After a part of speech has been thus elucidated, the class 
should be interrogated on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errours Jn com- 
position under the rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with 
the other t^arts of speech, observing, however, to recapnulate occasionally, until the 
learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may have been 

tjresented. If this plan oe faithfully pursued, rapid progress, on the part of the 
earner, will be the inevitable result ; and that teacher who pursues it, cannot fiiilof 
acquiring distinction, and an enviable popularity in his profession. 



L^ 



FAMILIAR LECTURES 

ON 

ENGIilSH GRAMMAR. 



LECTTTRB I. 

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. 

YOU are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, 
when rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the 
whole circle of science. If, however, you, like many a mis- 
guided youth, are under the impression that the study of gram- 
mar is dry and irksome, and a matter of little consequence, I 
trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, all such false 
notions and ungrounded prejudices ; for I will endeavour to 
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only 
a pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility ; a study 
that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and me- 
liorate the condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of 
Ihat learning which alone is capable of unfolding and maturing 
the mental powers, and of elevating man to his proper rank in 
the scale of intellectual existence ; — of that learning which lifts 
the soul from earth, and enables it to hold converse with a thou- 
sand worlds. In pursuing any and every other path of science, 
you will discover the truth of these remarks, and feel its force ; 

i for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every de- 
partmeni of learning, a knowledge of it is indispensable : and 
should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters, 
this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even if 

I you are destined to pass through the humbJest walks of life. I 
fhmk it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical know- 
ledge possesses a decisive advantage over every other branch of 
learning. Penmanship, arithmetick, geography, astronomy, 
botany, chymistry, and so on, are highly useful in their respec- 
Uvo places ; but not one of them is so universally applicable 
to practical purposes, as this In every situation, under all cijf- 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cumstances, on all occasions ; — when you speak, read, write, 
or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility. 

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they 
could detect and correct any errour in language by the ear, and 
speak and write accurately v/ithout a knowledge of grammar. 
Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this as- 
sertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing 
good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that 
knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those 
glaring errours that offend the ear ; but there are other errours 
equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequent- 
ly, which cannot be detected without a knowledge of the rules 
that are violated. Believe me, therefore, when I say, that with 
out the knowledge and application of grammar rules, it is im- 
possible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accura- 
cy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express 
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it 
impossible for any one to understand them : their language fre- 
quently amounts, not only to bad sense, but non-sense. In 
other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the 
words they employ ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfre- 
quently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a 
meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. No 
thing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention, 
then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge. 

The path which leads to gram^natical excellence, is not all 
the way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns 
interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or, in sim- 
ple language, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many 
intricacies which it is rather diificult for the juvenile mind com- 
pletely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you 
in plain language, and endeavour to illustrate every principle in 
a manner so clear and simple, that you will be able, if you exer- 
cise your mind, to understand its natu.e, and apply it to prac- 
tice as you go along ; for I would rather give you one useful 
idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meanmg of which you 
would probably be unable to comprehend. 

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of 
a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discoura- 
ged, but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by 
asking some person competent to inform you, till yo» obtain a 
clear conception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By care- 
fully examining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, 
you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction 
of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by which 



[\^ 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear 
and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they 
are pursuing ; and, on the other hand, 1 know they are apt to 
be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires 
much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence 
of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles 
with which the young learner must expect to meet ; and the 
best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to over- 
come the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your 
studies, is to cultivate the habit of thinking methodically and 
soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your 
attention. Nothing will be more etTectual in enabling you to 
think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study 
of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as 
prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, 
and, 1 trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the in- 
tellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which 
the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar commu- 
nicated in an interesting and familiar manner. 

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of 
light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts 
are marching onward with gigantick strides. You live, too, in a 
land of liberty ; — a land on which the smiles of Heaven beam 
with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warriour and 
the clangour of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in 
our valleys ; " the garments died in blood have passed away ;'* 
the mighty struggle for independence is over ; and you live to 
enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was pur- 
chased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations 
forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to 
your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding 
generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Re- 
member that " knowledge is power ;" that an enlightened and 
a virtuous people can never be enslaved ; and that, on the in- 
telligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, 
the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our beloved 
country. Go on, then, with a laudable ambition, and an un- 
yielding perseverance, in the path wWch leads to honour and 
renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the hill 
of science ; linger among her unfading beauties ; " drink 
deep" of her crystal fountain ; and then join in " the march of 
fame." Become learned and virtuous, and you will bo great 
Love God and serve him, and you will be happy 



16 LANGUAGE. 

LAJTGUAGE. 

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs 
b/ which men and brutes communicate to each other theii 
thoughts, affections, and desires. 

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial ; 
2. into spoken and written. 

Natural Language consists in the use of those natural 
signs which different animals employ in communicating theii 
feelings one to another. The meaning of these signs all per- 
fectly understand by the principles of their nature. This lan- 
guage is common both to man and brute. The elements o| 
natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds ; mo- 
dulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of 
these, two savages who have no common, artificial language, 
can communicate their thoughts in a manner quite intelligible : 
they can ask and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and suppli- 
cate ; they can traffick, enter into contracts, and plight their 
faith. The language of brutes consists in the use of those 
inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts and 
affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a 
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, 
and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, re- 
spectively. 

Artificial Language consists in the use of words, by 
means of which mankind are enabled to communicate their 
thoughts to one another. — In order to assist you in compre- 
hending what is meant by the term word, I will endeavour to 
illustrate the meaning of the term 

Idea. The notices which we gain by sensation and percep- 
tion, and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materi- 
als of thinking and knowledge, are denominated ideas. For 
example, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sen- 
sation is excited which we call coldness. That faculty which 
notices this sensation or change produced in the mind, is called 
perception ; and the abstract notice itself, or notion you form ot 
this sensation, is denominated an idea. This being premised, 
we will now proceed to the consideration of words. 

Words are articidate sounds, used by common consent, not 
as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have 
no meaning in themselves. They are merely the artificial re- 
presentatives of those ideas affixed to them by compact or 
agreement among those who use them. In English, for in- 
stance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the name gold; 
not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which 



GRAMMAR. 17 

suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that 
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. 
Were there any natural connexion between the sound and the 
thing signified, the word gold would convey the same idea to 
the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. But 
such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different 
sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum denotes the 
same idea in Latin, and or in French. Hence it follows, thai 
it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to par- 
ticular sounds. 

Spoken Language or speech is made up of articulate 
sounds uttered by the human voice. 

The voice is formed by air which, after it passes through the 
glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) 
is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, 
lips, and nostrils. 

Written Language. The elements of written language 
consist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and 
general usage, are combined into words, and thus made the 
ocular representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the 
voice. 



GRAMMAR. 

GRAMMAR is the science of language. 

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and 
particular. 

Universal Grammar explains tl e principles which are 
common to all languages. 

Particular Grammar applies those general principles to 
a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, 
and the established practice of the best speakers and writers 
by whom it is used. Hence, 

The established ^practice of the best speakers and writers of 
any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the 
use of that language. 

By the phrase, esfaftZis/ierf •practice, is implied reputable, na- 
tional, and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, 
when it has been long and generally adopted. 

The best speakers and writers^ or such as may be considereo 
good authority in the use of language, are those who are de- 
servedly ill high estimation ; speakers, distinguished for tboiT 

2* 



IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

elocution and other literary attainments, and writers, einineni 
for correct taste, solid matter, and refined manner. 

In ihe grammar of a -perfect language, no rules should be admitted, but 
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that 
language and the nature of things ; but our language being im-perfect, it 
becomes necessary, in a -practical treatise, like this, to adopt some rules to 
direct us in the use of speech as regulated by custom. If we had a perma 
ncnt and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the trans- 
mission of thought, greal inconvenience would be avoided. They, how- 
over, who introduce usages which depart from the analog) and philosophy 
of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that 
language, and have power to control it. 

Language is con'-'entional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive 
advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it as- 
sumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose' to 
give it. We are, therefore, as rational and practical grammarians, compelled 
to submit to the necessity of the case ; to take the language as it is, and 
not as it should be, and bow to custom. 

Philosophical Grammar investigates and develops the 
principles of language, as founded in the nature of things and 
the original laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of 
the classification of words, and explains those procedures 
which practical grammar lays down for our observance. 

Practical Grammar adopts the most convenient classifi- 
cation of the words of a language, lays down a system of de- 
finitions and rules, founded on scientifick principles and good 
usage, illustrates their nature and design, and enforces theii 
application. 

Principle. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construe 
tion of the language, sanctioned by good usage. 

Definition. A definition in grammar is a j)rinciple of Ian 
guage expressed in a definite form. 

Rule. A rule describes the peculiar construction or cir 
cumstantial relation of words, which custom has established 
for ou»r observance. 



ElVGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

Grammar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner. 
The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to 
convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store 
of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no 
real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and 



wRTHOGRAPHY. 10 

make them answer the purposes for which they were invented. 
Grammar, well understood, enables us to express oui thoughts 
fully and clearly ; and, consequently, in a manner which will 
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning 
than that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be 
able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy 
and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest mo- 
ment. 

Grammar is divided into four parts ; 

1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 

2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 
Orthography teaches the nature and powers 

of letters, and the just method of spelling words. 

Orthography means word-making, or spelling. It teaches 
us the different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine 
them into syllables, and syllables into words. 

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I 
presume you already understand the nature and use of letters, 
and the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unne- 
cessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, 
though very important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for it has 
nothing to do with parsing or analyzing language. And, there- 
fore, if you can spell correctly, you may omit Orthography, and 
commence with Etymology and Syntax. 

Orthography treats, 1st, of Letters, 2ndly, of 
Syllables, and 3dly, of Words, 

1. Letters. A letter is the first principle, or 
least part, of a word. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six let 
ters. 

They are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sound- 
ed by itself. The vowels are a, e, i, o, le, and 
sometimes w and y, j^and y are consonants 
when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every 
other situation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly 
sounded without the help of a vowel ; as, b, d,/, 
L All letters except the vowels are consonants 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Consonants are divided into mutes an semi 
vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all w hout the 
aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k ^nd c and 
g hard. 

The semi- vowels have an imperfe X sound of 
themselves. They are/,/,m,^,r, r i, z, x, and c 
and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, h<Q called liqvids, because 
they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, mto theii 
sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as o\ 
in voice, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels pro- 
nounced in like manner ; as, eau in beau, iew in 
view. 

A proper diphthong has 6ofA the vowels sounded; as, ou in ounce. An 
improper diphthong has only one of the vowels sounded ; as, oa in boat. 

II. Syllables. A syllable is a distinct sound, 
uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as, a^ 
an, ant, 

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyi 
lable ; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a 
word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; a word 
of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

III. Words. Words are articulate sounds, 
used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and deriva- 
tive. 

A primitive Avord is that which cannot be re- 
duced to a simpler word in the language ; as, 
man, good, 

A derivative word is that which maybe reduced 
to a simpler word; as, manfid, goodness. 

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. 
The tcrminafeons or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, 
*n(, do^n, hood, ly, ous, fid. ness, and the like, were, originally, distinct and 
•eparate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to 
jottlesce with other words. 



SOUNDS OP THB LETTERS. 21 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

A. — A has four sounds ; the long; as in name, basin ; the broad ; as in 
caU^ wall; the sliort ; as in fagoty glass ; and the flat, Italian sound j as in 
bar, farther. 

The improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam, CanaaUf 
Isaac ; and the long sound of o in Baal, Gaal, Jiaron^ 

The Latin diphthong, «, has the long sonnd of e in cenigma, CcBsar, and 
some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrefacence of 
antiquity, and write, enigma, Cesar. 

The diphthong, ai, has the long sound of a ; as in pail, sail ; except in 
plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some others. 

Au is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, lilte long o in 
\axUboy, and like short o in laurel. 

A%o has always the sound of broad a ; as in haiol, crmoL 

Ay has the long sound of a ; as in pay, delay. 

B. — B has only one sciund ; as in baker, number, chub. 

B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable ; as in lamb, &c. except 
in acaipib, rhomb, and sucaimb. It is also silent before t in the same sylla- 
»le ; as in doubt, debtor, subtle, &c. 

C. — C sounds like k before a, o, u, r, I, t, and at the end of syllables ; as 
in cart, cottage, airious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid. It has the sound of 
• before e, i, and y ; as in centre, cigar, mercy. C has the sound ofsh when 
followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or 
secondary; as in social, pronunciation, &c. ; and of z in discern, sacrifice, sice, 
suffice. It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin ; but in words de- 
rived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of k ; as in chymist, 
chorus; and likewise in foreign names ; as in Jlchish, Enoch. In words 
from the French, ch sounds like sh ; as in chaise, chevalier; and also iik<j 
th when preceded by / or n; as in milch, bench, clinch, &c. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in arc)i-angel, except in 
arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant, it sounds like 
Ish ; as m archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yacht, drachm. 

t>. — D has one uniform sourwi ; as in death, bandage. It sounds like dj 
or J when followed by long u preceded by the accent ; as in educate, verdure. 
It also sounds likej in grandeur, soldier. 

The termination, ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains 
its distinct sound ; as, a wicktd man, a learn-ed man, bless-ed are the meek ; 
but in verbs the e is generally dropped ; as, passed, walked, flashed, aimedf 
rolled, &c. which are pronounced, past, icalkt,flasht, aimd, rold. 

E. — E has a long sound ; as in scheme, severe ; a short sound ; as in men, 
tent; and sometimes the sound of flat a; as in sergeant; and of short i, 
as in yes, pretty, England, and generally in the unaccented terminations, cs, 
et, en. 

F. — Fhas one unvaried sound : as infancy, muffin ; except in of, which, 
when uncomponnded, is pronounced ov. A wive's portion, a calve's head, 
are improper. They should be, wife^s portion, calfs head. 

G. — G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and r, and at the 
end of a word ; as in gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug. It is soft before e, i, 
and y; as in genius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions ; get, gexogawy gimletf and 
some others. G is silent before n; as in gnash. 

H. — H has an articulate sound ; as in hat, horse, hidl. It is silent after 
r ; a«? in rhetot-ick, rhubarb. 

I. — / has a long sound ; as in fine ; and a short one; as in^n. Before 
r it is often soimded like u short ; as in first, third; and in other words, 
like short e ; as in birth, virtue. In some words it has the sound of long 
< j OS in machine, profile. 



22 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

J.—/ has the sound of soft g ; except in hdlelujah, in which it is pro 
Bounced like y. 

K. — K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i, and y, where c 
would be soft; as kept^ skirt, murky. It is silent before n; as in knife, 
Jmell, knocker. 

The custom of omitting the k at the end of words where it is preceded 
\y c, has introduced into the language the unwarrantable novelty of ending 
a word with an unusual letter, which produces irregularities in formatives ; 
for we are obliged to employ the k in frolicking, frolicked, trafficking, traf- 
Acked, mimicking, attacking, &c. though we omit it mfrolick, traffixik, &e. 

L. — L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in /we, hillow. It is often 
silent ; as in half, talk, almond. 

M. — M has always the same sound ; as in murmur, monumental ; except 
in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 

N. — ^ has two sounds; the one pure ; as in ma7i, net, noble ; the othei 
a compound sound ; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c. pronounced angkl, 
bangkioet. JV final is silent when preceded by m ; as in hymn, autumn. 

O. — O has a long sound; as in note, ofoer ; and a short one ; as in nety 
got. It has the sound of u short ; as in son, attorney, doth, does ; and ge- 
nerally in the terminations, op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od, &c. 

P. — P has but one uniform sound ; as in pin, slipper ; except in cup* 
board, clapboard, where it has the sound of b. It is mute in psalm, Ptolemy, 
tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt. 

Ph has the sound of/ in philosophy, Philip; and of v in nephew, Stephen. 

Q. — Q, is sounded like k, and is always followed by m pronounced like Wf 
as in quadrant, queen, conquest. 

B, — R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage ; and a smooth one ; 
as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented termination re, the r is sound- 
ed after the e; as in fibre, centre. 

S. — -S" has a flat sound like z; as in besom, nasal ; and, at the beginning 
of words, a sharp, hissing sound ; as in saint, sister, sample. It has the 
pound of sh when preceded by the accent and another 5 or a hquid, and 
followed by a diphthong or long u ; as in expulsion, censure. S sounds like 
zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong 
or long u ; as in brasier, usiml. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. 

T. — Tis sounded in take, temper. T before u, when the accent precedes, 
and generally before ecni, sounds like tsh ; as, nature, virtue, righteous, are 
pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti before a vowel, preceded by tho 
accent, has the sound of sh : as in salvation, negotiation ; except in such words 
as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting 
also derivatives from words ending in ty; as in mighty, mightier. 

Th, at the beginning, middle, and end of words, is sharp ; as in thick, 
panther, breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, worthy, &c. 

U. — t7has three sounds; a long; as in m^de, cubick ; a short; as in dvU, 
custard; and an obtuse sound ; as in full, bushel. It is pronounced like 
short e in hiry ; and like short i in busy, business. 

V. — V has uniformly the sound of flat/; as in vmiity, love. 

\V.~W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in wo, beware, 

W is silent before r; as in wry, xorap, lorinkle ; and also in answer, 
sword, &c. Before h it is pronounced as if written after the h; as in why^ 
when, what; — hwy, hioen, hwat. When heard as a vowel, it takes th« 
sound of u ; as in draw, crew, now. 

X. — X has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable with the ac- 
cent on it ; as, exit, exercise ; or when it precedes an accented syllable 
which begins with any consonant except h ; as, excuse, extent ; but wher 
the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or h, it has, generally 
a flat sound, like gz ; as in exert, exhoi-t. X has the sound of z at the be 
ginning of proper names of Greek original ; as in Xanihus, Xencphon, Xerxa 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 23 

Y. — Y, when a consonant, has its proper sound ; as in youth, York, yes, 
new-year. When y is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound that i 
wou' ♦ have in the same situation j as in rhyme, system, party, pyramid. 

i.. -Z has the sound of flat s; as m freeze, brazen. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 

The following rules are deemed important in practice, al- 
though they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the 
words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquir- 
ed by studying the spelling-be ok and dictionary, and by strict 
attention in reading. 

Rule i. Monosyllables ending in/, /, or s, double the final 
or ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as, 
staff, mill, pass. Exceptions ; of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, 
this, lis, and thus. 

False Orthography for the learner to correct. — Be thou like the gale that 
moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. — The aged hero comes forth on 
his staf ; his gray hair glitters in the beam. — Shal mortal man be more just 
than God ? Few know the value of health til they lose it. — Our manners 
should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. 

And that is not the lark, whose notes do heat 

The vanity heaven so high above our heads : 

I have more care to stay, than wil to go. 

Rule ii. IMonosyllables ending in any consonant but^, /, ot 
», never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a sin- 
gle vowel ; aa, %nan, hat. Exceptions ; add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, 
err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

False Orthography. — None ever went sadd from Fingal. —He rejoiced over 
his sonn. — Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. — Many a trapp is set 
lo insnare the feet of youth. 

The weary sunn has made a golden sett, 

And, by the bright track of his golden carr. 

Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. 

* Rule hi. Words ending in ij, form the plural of nouns, the 
oersons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, compara- 
tives, and superlativrs, by changing ij into i, when the y is nre- 
ceded by a consonar^ ; as, spy, spies ; J carry, thou carriest, he 
carries ; carHer, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be 
doubled ; as, carrtj, carrying. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in sucn instances as the 
above, it is not changed into i ; as, boy, boys ; J cloy, he cloys j 
except in the words lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed 
laid, paid, and said; and their comoounds, wipaici, unsaid, <SfC 



24 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Fdse Orthos^aphy.—Oxir fancys should be governed by reason.^Trai(Mi 
wearyest thyself in vain. — He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. 
Win straiina souls with modesty and love ; 
Cast none away. 

The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. 

Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder 
allies green. 

Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional 
syllable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by 
a consonant, is commonly changed to i ; as, happy, happily, 
happiness. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is 
very rarely changed to i ; as, cot/, coyless ; boy, boyish ; boy- 
Iwod ; joy, joyless, joyful. 

False Ottho^raphy.—liis mind is uninfluencec^ by fancyful humours. — The 
vessel was heavy!}; laden.^ — ^When we act against conscience, we become 
the destroiers of our own peace. 

Chiistiana, mayden of heroick mien ! 

Star of the north ! of northern stars the queen ! 

PtULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syl- 
lable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a singlft 
vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable 
that begins with a vowel ; as, ivit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, 
an abetter'. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last 
syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to 
offer, an offering ; maid, maiden. 

False OrthogropJiy. — The business of to-day, should not be defered till to- 
morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errours, 
we have won the race. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our 
sorrows. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the 
heathen philosoj hers allowed. 

At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow 
Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below. — 
Thus mourned the hapless man ; a thunderring sound 
Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. 

Rule vi. Words ending in double /, in taking ness, less, ty^ 
or fid, aftei them, generally omit one I ; a.s,fiilness, shitless, fulhj^ 
skilfid. 

But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking m?9, 
less, ly, or fid, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harrt^ 
kssness, carelessness, oarelessly, stiffly, successful. 

False Orthography. — Achillness generally precedes a fever. — He is wea fa 
dullness. 

The silent stranger stood amazed to see 
Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. 
Rcstlesness of mind impairs our peace.— The road to theblisfid regions, ia 
as open to the peasant as to the king.— The arrows of calumny fall harm 
Icsiy at the feet of virtue 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 25 

Rule vii. JVew, less, ly^ or ful, added to words ending in 
silent c, does not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely , peace- 
fid : except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful, 

Ffdse Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. 
All these with ceasless praise hi" works behold. 
Stars nisli : and Hnal ruin hercly drives 
Her ploughshare o'er creation ! 

Nature made a pause, 

m An aweful pause ! propUetick of her end ! 

Rule viii. When words ending in silent e, assume the ter- 
mination, ment, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chas- 
tisement. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, 
are exceptions to this rule. 

Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is 
preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment; mer- 
ry, merriment. 

False Orthography. — A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improv- 
ment. — Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. 
To shun allurments is not hard, 
To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepar'd. 

Rule ix. When words ending in silent e, assume the termi- 
nation, able or ible, the e should generally be cut off; as, blame, 
blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible. But if c or g soft 
comes before e m the original word, the e is preserved in words 
compounded with able ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, change- 
able. 

False Orthography. — ^Knowledge is desireable. — Misconduct is inexcuse- 
able. — Our natural defects are not chargable upon us. — We are made to be 
eervicable to others as well as to ourselves. 

Rule x. When ing or isJi is added to words ending in silent 
c, the e is almost always omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, 
lodscing ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish, . 

False Orthogi-aphy. — Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spmt. — 
An ohligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile 
and cringeing humour. 

Conscience anticipateing time, 

Already rues th' unacted crime. 

One sclf-approveing hour, whole years outweighs 

Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. 

Rule xi. Compound words are generally spelled in the 
same manner as the simple words of which they are compound- 
ed ; as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many word^ 
ending in double I, are exceptions to this rule; as, already, wel- 
fare, wilful, fulfil ; and also the words wherever, christmas, lam- 
mas, %-c. 

False Orthography. — The Jew's pasover was instituted in A. M. 25 H. 
fhey salute one another by touching their forheads. — That which is fcoino 
times expedient, is not alhvays so. 



26 £TrMOLOGY AND SVNTAX. 

Then, in the scale of reas'ning life 'tis plain, 
There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man. 
Till hymen brought his lov-deHghted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. 

The head rechned, the loosened hair, 

Tlie Umbs relaxed, the mournful air : — 

See, he looks up ; a wofull smile 

Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile. 

You may now answer the following 

QUESTIONS. _% 

What is language ? — How is language divided 1 — What is na- 
tural language 1 — What are the elements of natural language 
in man 1 — Wherein consists the language of brutes ? — What is 
artificial language 'I — What is an idea 1 — What are words X — 
What is Grammar ? — What does Universal grammar explain ? — 
Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal? — What 
is the standard of grammatical accuracy] — What is Philosophi- 
cal grammar? — What is Practical grammar? — What is a prin- 
ciple of grammar? — A definition? — A rulq ? — What is English 
grammar ? — Into how many parts is grammar divided ? — What 
does Orthography teach ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

LECTURE ir. 

OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words-; 
their various modifications, and their derivation. 

SyoStax treats of the agreement and govern- 
ment of words, and of their proper arrangement 
in a sentence. 

The word Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree oj 
words. '' 

Syn, a prefix from the Greek, signifies logether. Sijn-taa 
means placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, sentence 
viakin^. 

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of 
words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and 
thereby enable us to correct and avoid errours in speech, aae 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 27 

chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymo- 
logy. Etymological knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the 
study of Syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, 
you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes ne- 
cessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these 
two parts of grammar in connexion. 

Conducted on scientifick principles, Etymology would com- 
prehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, 
in sliort, their whole history, including their application to things 
in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the 
caprice of those who apply them ; but to follow up the current 
of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from 
which it flows, M'ould involve a process altogether too arduous 
and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the 
study of all those languages from which ours is immediately de- 
rived, and even compel us to trace many words through those 
languages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain ol 
research would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive 
to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself 
to the following; limited views of this part of grammar. 

1. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 

2. Etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to 
each class or sort of words, and their present modifications. 
By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their end' 
ingSy in consequence of their assuming different relations in re- 
spect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fniits, 
fruit'*; he, his, him; write, writes^, write^/i, writes, wrote, writ- 
ten, writing-, writer ; a, an ; ample, ampl?/, and the like, will be 
explained in their appropriate places. 

3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words ; that is, it 
teaches you hoiv one loord comes from, or grows out o/ another. 
For example : from the word speak, come the words speakf*/, 
speakefA, speaks, speakmo", sipoke, spoken, speaker, speaker's, 
speakers. These, you perceive, are all one and the same 
word, and all, except the last three, express the same kind of 
action. They differ from each other only in the termination. 
"iTiese changes in termination are produced on the word in or- 
der to make it correspond with the various persons who speak, 
the number of persons, or the time of speaking ; as, / speak, 
thou speakes/, the man speakef/i or speaks, the men speak, / 
spoke ; The speaker speaks another speaker's speech. 

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected 
with the s ''cond, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV. 
jind in the Philosophical notes ; but I shall not treat largely of 
that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to 



2S RTVMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

foreign languages. This is the province of the lexicography 
rather than of the philologist. It is not the business jf him 
who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the 
Saxon, nor to the Celtick, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, 
nor the Persian ; nor is it his province to explain their meaning 
in liatin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; 
but it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, theii 
connexions, relations, dependances, and bearings, not at the 
period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of 
Great Britain, nor in the year in which T-iamech paid his ad- 
dresses to Adah and Zillah, but at the particular period in 
which he writes. His words are already derived, formed, es- 
tablished, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take 
them and explain them as he finds them in his day, without any 
regard to their ancient construction and application. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the le 
gitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult practi 
cal convenience. The true principle of classification seems to 
be, not a reference to essential differences in the primitive 
meaning of words, nor to their original combmations, but to the 
manner in which they are at present employed. In the early and 
rude state of society, mankind are quite limited in their know* 
ledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small num- 
ber of words answers their purpose in the transmission of 
thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, de- 
tached sentences, requiring few or none of those connectives^ 
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into 
language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its 
perspicuity and elegance. The argument appears to be con- 
clusive, then, that every language must necessarily have more 
parts of speech in its refined, than in its barbarous state. 

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascer 
tained, not by the oHginai signification of that word, but h\ 
its present manner of meaning, or, rather, the office which it 
ptrforms in a sentence. 

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea 
which it represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, 
The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. 
Here, the word paiitt, is first employed to describe the brush 
which the painter uses ; in this situation it is, therefore, an 
adjective ; secondly, to name the mixture employed ; for which 
reason it is a noun ; and, lastly, to express the action perform- 



CLASSIFICATION. 29 

ed ; it, therefore, becomes a verb : and yet, the meaning of 
the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, 
however, is applied in different ways ; and thus the same word 
becomes different parts of speech. Richard took water from 
the water pot, to toater the plants. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words. 

The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, 

Danish, Celtick, and Gothick ; but in the progressive stages of 

i its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from 

j the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, aiiJ German lan- 

I guages. 

The number of words in our language, after deducting pro- 
I per names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, 
nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about forty ihou- 
t sand, 

I "There are ten sorts of words, called parts of 
'speech, namely, the noun or substantive, verb, 

ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PRE- 
POSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTER- 
JECTION. 

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English lan- 
guage arc included in these ten classes : and what you have to 
do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely 
to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the 
rules of Syntax that apply to them. The J^oun and Verb arc 
I the most important and leading parts of spee<ih ; therefore they 
I are first presented : all the rest (except the interjection) are 
' either appendages or connectives of these two. As you pro- 
ceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you 
more labour, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than It 
will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech. 

The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them 
with each other, and express their actions. 

JVou/is, which are the names of entities or things, adjectives, 
which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describ- 
ing them, and expressing their qualities, and verbs, which ex- 
press the actions and being of things, are the only classes of 
words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of gram- 
mar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical 
advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification 

3* 



30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

will be found more convenient or accurate than the furegomg, 
which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in 
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a 
less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anti- 
cipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for 
adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the 
different sorts of words are respectively presented to you, foi 
then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments. 

OF NOUNS. 

A NOUN is the name of any person, place, oi 
thing ; as, man, Charleston, hiowledge. 

Nouns are often improperly called substantives. A substan- 
tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name 
either of a substance or a quality. 

JVoun, derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. 
The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or inani- 
mate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, 
is a noun. Animal^ bird^ creature^ paper ^ pen^ apple, jicldy house, 

* The word thing, from the Saxon verb thingia'n, to think, is almost un 
limited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in 
the universe. By the term creature, I mean that vt'lnch has been created ; 
as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions ; as, 
"To get drunk is a beastly thing.'''' In this phrase, it signifies neither animal 
nor creature ; but it denotes merely an action ; therefore this action is the 
thing. 

NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and 
criticjil investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and 
combinations, than the English language. The legitimate province of phil- 
ology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been made 
to yield to that of phik)sophy, so far as to divert the attention from the com- 
binations of our language which refinement has introduced, to radical ele- 
ments and associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or 
the essential use for which language was intended. Were this retrogressive 
%mde of investigating and applying principles, to obtain, among philologists, 
the ascendency over that which accommodates the use of language to pro- 
gressive refinement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which 
society would, in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call 
the philosophy of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of 

f>hilology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined state of Eng- 
ish literature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, 
namely, the approximation of language, in common with every thing else, 
to that point of perfection at which it is the object of correct philology to 
arrive, would be frustrated. 

The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and 
VTsionanes who absurdly endeavour to teach modern English, by rejecting 
the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner baci 



NOUW3. COMMON AND PROP&B. &i 

modesttfj virtue, couras:;ey d<iwo-e)*, are all nouns. In order that 
you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will 
I give you a 5»\2rn, which will be useful to you when you cannot 
i tell it by the sense. Any word that will make sense with Ihe b»- 
I fore it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and 
i see if they are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, 
understanding. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and so on. 
( You perceive, that they will make sense with ihe prefixed; 
I therefore you know they are nouns. There are, however, ex- 
I ceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with 
j the prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you ex- 
j ercise your mmd, by their making sense of themselves; as, good- 
ness^ sobriety, hope, immortality. 

I Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, 
j IS well as its reality ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-exisi- 
I ence, invisibility. 

; Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, ac- 
! cording to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are sometimes 
I used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will 
! be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you 
i will be better prepared to comprehend it. 

I Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. 
! A Common noim is the name of a sort or species 
i of things ; as, man, tree, river, 

, to the original combinations, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous 
I c«Mistmrtionsof our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a due 
rf'iaird for correct philology, impel mc to shun. Those modest writers who, 
hy brinirinsr to thcii aid a little sophistry, much duphcity, and a wholesale 
tratfick in the swellmj? phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense," 
atreiiipt to overthrow tlie wisdom of former ages, and show that the result 
of all the labours of those distinguished philologists who had previously 
oicupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but errour and folly, 
will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such con- 
summate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for those who em- 
p!<.v our language as their vehicle of mental conference, custom will not 
VK'Id to the speculative theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement 
in English literature would soon be at an end, and we should be tamely 
conducted back to the Vandalick age. 

As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is evi- 
dently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical certainly^ 
It mav not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a view to expose 
thf^ fallacy of so vague a criterion. 

All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of Ian 

guage for an ultimate result, must be conducted a ■posteriori. Its office, 

! accordins to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, is to trace lin- 

i giiage to its origin, not for the purpose of determining and fixing grain< 

i matical associations and dependances, such as the agreement, ^-oveic 

nient, and mutual relations of words, but in order to analyze combinations 

with a view to »n-ainp the first principles of the language, and arrive at the 



Z2 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; as, 
Charles, Ithacay Ganges, 

A noun signifying many, is called a collective 
?ioim, or noun of multitude ; as, the people, the 
army. 

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very 
obvious. For example : hoy is a common noun, because it is 
a name applied to all boys ; but Charles is a proper noun, be- 
cause it is the name of an individual boy. Although many boys 
may have the same name, yet you know it is not a commor 
noun, for the name Charles is not given to all boys. Mississippi 
is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual river ; 
but river is a common noun, because it is the name of a species 
of things, and the name river is common to all rivers. 

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of being? 
or things, are always common ; as, tree, the genus ; oah, ash.^ 
chestnut, poplar, different species ; and red oak, white oak, black 
oak, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or 
quantity of dirt, is a common noun ; but when it denotes the 
ulanet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The words person, place, 
river, mountain, lake, &c. are common nouns, because they are 
the names of whole specie's, or classes of things containing many 
sorts ; but the nam,es of persons, places, rivers, mountains, 

])rimitive meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has 
paid critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original import 
of single words, has any relation to the sjmtactical dependances and con 
nexions of words in general ; — to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading 
object of the student in grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge thos« 
who have indulged in such useless vagaries, to show by what process, with 
their own systems, they can communicate a practical knowledge of grajr* 
mar. I venture to predict, that, if they make the attempt, thej will find 
their systems more splendid in theory, than useful in practice. 

Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning ha^ 
any efficiency in controlling the signiiication which, by the power of asso- 
ciation, custom has assigned to many Avords ; — a signification essentudly dij- 
ferent from the original import. Were this the case, and were the language 
now to be taught and understood in compliance with the originaj :mport o 
words, it would have to undergo a thorough change ; to be analyzed, dividen 
and subdivided, almost ad i7ifinihnn. Indeed, there is the same p'.xjpriety lu 
asserting, that the Gothick, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our Ian 
gr.age, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to understand out 
vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning 
has an ascendency over the influence of the principle of association i.i 
changing, and the power of custom in determining, the import of words 
Many of our words are derived from the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, 
Italian, and German languages ; and the only use we can make of their ori- 
piaals, IS to render them-subservient to the force of custom in cases in which 
iieuaral usage has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, l«t 



NOUNS. COMMON AND PROPER. 33 

hikes, &c. are p^-oper nouns, because they denote individuals ; 
as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. 

Physician, lawyer, tnercliani, and shoemaker, are common 

nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. 

) God and Lord, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are 

proper ; but when employed to denote heathen or false gods, oi 

; temporal hrds, they are conunon. 

The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though o^ mi- 
nor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal. 

NOTES, 

1. When proper nouns have an article annexed to them, they are used 
%tter tlie manner of common nouns ; as, " Bolivar Ls styled Ike Washington 
of South America," 

2. Cammon nouns are sometimes used to signify indivhhids, when articles 
or pronouns are prefixed to them ; as, *' TIte boy is studious ; That girl is 
discreet." In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns. 

3. Comxnon nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following classes : 
J^oun^ ofMnllitude; as, The people, tlie pariiament : Verhcd, or participial 
nmms ; as. The beginning, reading, writing ; and Mstract twuns^ or the 
nances of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, virtue, 
goodness- Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with 
that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration ap- 
pears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two 
parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart (that 
is, abstracted) /rom the substance or being to which it belongs; but an ad- 
jective denotes a quality joined (adjected) to the substance or being to which 
"It belongs. Thus, whiteness and white both denote the same quality ; but 
we speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word 

the advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, extend 
their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, and, with Home 
Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- 
tifjns, as abbreviations ol" nouns and verbs, but, on their own responsibility, 
I a^ply them, in teaching the language, in compUmice with their radical import, 
I and what would such a course avail them against the power of custom, and 
the influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one granv 
ma ian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will exhibit & 
" p.iilosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to teach archi- 
tecture, by having recourse to its ongin,as represented by booths and tents. 
In addition to this, when we consider the great number of obsolete woids, 
from which many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which 
cannot be ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been 
changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to think, that a 
mere pnilosophical mo<^!e of investigating and teaching the language, is the 
»ne by which its significancy can be enforced, its correctness determined, 
1 iM use comprehended, and its improvement extended. Before what com- 
monly parses for a philosophical manner of developing the language can 
fl«i«"ce8sfu'ly be made the medium through which it can be comprehended in 
all its present combinatioMS, relalions, and dependi.nres, it must undergo 
a thorough retrogressive change, m all those combinations, relations, and 
depcndanccs^, even lo the last letter of the alphabet. And before wc can 
C4^)nsent to this radical ntodification and retrograde ratio of the English 
iangiiago, w? must agree to revive the customs, the habits, and the precise 
language ot -mr progenitors, the Gotlis and Vandals. Were all the adv» 



54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

white always ir. reference to the noun to which it belongs ; as, while paper, 
white house. 

4. Some authors have proceeaed to still more minute divisions and sub- 
divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which appear to be 
more complex than useful : JSTatnrd notms, or names of things formed by- 
nature ; as, man, beast, water, air : 2. Artificial norms, or names of things 
formed by art ; as, book, vessel, house : 3. Personal nouns, or those which 
stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Edwin: 4. JsTeuter nouns, or 
those which denote things inanimate ; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. 
The following, however, is quite a rational divisior ; Material nouns arp 
the names of things formed of matter ; as, stone, book : hnmaterial nouns 
are the names of things having no substance j as, hope, immortality. 

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and 
case. 

GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of sex. JNouns have 
three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and 
the neuter. 

The masculme gender denotes males ; as, a rnati^ 
a boy, 

The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a wo- 
man^ 2i girl. 

The neuter gender denotes things without sex,, 
as, a hat, a stick, 

J^euter means neither : therefore neuter gender signifies nei^ 
ther gender ; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, 

cates for the introduction of such philosophical grammars into common 
schools, at once to enter on their pilgrimage, and recede into the native 
obscurity and barbarity of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is be- 
lieved, that the cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly 
by their loss, and that the good sense of the present age, wou'd not allow 
many of our best teachers to be of the party. 

The last consideration which I shall give a philosopnical manner of in ves 
tigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this mode of analy- 
zing and reducing it to practice, it cannot, in this age, be comprehended as the 
medium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our present literal lan- 
guage would become a dead letter. Of what avail is language, if it can not 
be understood ? And how can it be accommodated to the understanding, 
unless it receive the sanction of common consent ? Even if we admit that 
such a manner of unfolding the principles of our lanffuage, is more rational 
and correct than the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such 
a mode of investigation and developement, does not meet the necessities 
and convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that sys- 
tem which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin, must un- 
fold the whole in the same manner. But the student in common schools 
and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of language up to its 
source, and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge. Such 
labour ought not to be required of him. His object is to become, not a 



U 



/ NOUNS. GENDER. S5 

neuter Render means no gender. Strictly speaking, then as 
there are but two sexes, nouns have but tivo genders , but for 
the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three gen- 
ders, by calling that a gender wliich is no gender. The English 
and the pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which 
observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division of nouns. 
— The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther ex* 
plauation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the 
following 

NOTES. 

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine nnd feminine, and sometimes 
masculine or feminine. Tlie noun parents is of the masculine and feminine 
gender. The nouns parent, associate, neighbour, servant, friend, child, bird, 
fisli, i^c. if doubtful, are of the masculine or feminine gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or personi- 
fied, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are 
generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of 
imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and effica- 
cious ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, lointer, ^c. Those, again, are generally 
feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing 
forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable : as, the earth, moon, 
church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, 
peace, ^c. This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which 
is quite rational, is generally adhered to in the- English language ; but, in 
some instances, the poet appUes the sex according to his fancy. 

The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways : 
1. By different iDords ; as, 
Masculine. Feminine. Masculine, Feminine, 

Bachelor maid Boy girl 

Boar sow Brother sister 

philosophical antiquarian, but a practical grammarian. If I comprehend 
the design (if they have any) of our modern philosophical writers on this 
subject, it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, 
arising out of the genius of the language, ana the nature of things, which 
the learner, by the exercise of his reasoning powers, must reduce to practice. 
His own judgment, independent of grammar rules, is to be his guide in speak- 
ing and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclude from their sys 
tems, all exercises in what is called false Syntax. But these profound phi- 
lological dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration, 
that the great mass of mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common 
schools, caji never become philosophers; and, consequently, can never com-^ 
prehond and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of 
grammar. I wish to see children treated as reasoning beings. But there 
should be a medium in all things. It is, tlierefore, absurd to instruct chil- 
dren as if they were already profound philosophers and logicians. 

To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising^ the 
learner in correcting false Syntax, i need no other argument than the inta 
resting and undeniable fact,, that Mr. Murray's labours, in this department, 
have effected a complete revolution in the Englxsn language, in point of ver.- 
bal accuracy. Who does not know, that the best writers of this day, are not 
guilty ofoTie gramn.atical inaccuracy, whert: tho=;e authors who wrote before 
Mr. Murray flounshea, are guilty o( Jive ? And \vhat has produced this ito^ 



36 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Borli 


doe 


Lord 


lady 


Bull 


cow 


Man 


woman 


Cock 


hen 


Master 


mistress 


Dog 


bitch 


Milter 


spawner 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Singer 


songstress or 


Friar 


nun 




singer 


fiamkr 


goose 


Sloven 


slut 


Hart 


roe 


Son 


daughter 


Horse 


mare 


Stag 


hind 


Husband 


wife 


Uncle 


aunt 


Kins 


queen 


Wizard 


witch 


Lad 


Tass 


Sir 


madan? 




^ Bya difference 


in termination ; 


as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Elector 


electress 


Actor 


actress 


Embassador 


embassadress 


/administrator 


administratrix 


Einperour 


emperess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Executor 


executrix 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Auditor 


auditress 


God 


goddess 


Author 


authoress 


Govemour 


governess 
heiress 


Baron 


baroness 


Heir 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Hero 


heroine 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Host 


hostess 


Canon 


canon ess 


Hunter 


huntress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Inheritor 


mheritress or 


Chanter 


chantress 




inheritrix 


Conductor 


conductress 


Instructer 


instructress 


Count 


countess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Czar 


czarina 


Lion 


liones? 


Deacon 


o«acones3 


Maiquis 


marchioness 


Detractor 


detractress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Director 


directress 


Patron 


patroness 


Duke 


dutchess 


Peer 


peeress 



portant change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who have 
studied " Mr. Murray's exercises \n False Syntax." If, then, this view ol 
the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical 
grammars, are far more worthy the attention of Uterary connoisseurs, thar 
of the great mass of learners. 

Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in 
the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought proper, for the 
gratification of such, to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the 
head of "Philosophical Notes," an entire system of grammatical prin- 
ciples as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and con- 
sistent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that 
exhibited in the body of the work, are, of course, at hberty to adopt it. 

, In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to accord with thM 
practical theory embraced in the body of this work. Wherever such agreement 
exists, the system contained in these Notes wiU be deficient, and this deficiency 
may be sxipplied by adopting the principles contained in the other parts of the 
work. 

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
According to the method in vhichphiteaophical investigations of langoeg* 
hive generally been condoitsd, all our words should be reduced to two 



NOUNS. — PERSON. 



3t 



poetess 


Sultan 


sultaneas or 


priestess 




sultana 


princess 


Tiger 


tigress 


prioress 


Testator 


testatrix 


prophetess 


Traitor 


traitress 


proprietress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


protectress 


Tyrant 


tyranncss 


shepherdess 


Victor 


victress 


songstress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


sorceress 


Votary 


votaress 


sujtreas 


V^ldower 


widow 



Poet 

Priest 

Prince 

Prior 

Prophet 

Proprietor 

Protector 

Shepherd 

Songster 

Sorcerer 

Suiter 

3, By prefixing another word; as, 

A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow 

A man-servant A maid-servant 

A he-goat A she-goat 

A he-bear A she-bear 

A inale-cliild A female-child 

Male-descendaats ' Female-descendants 

PERSON. 

Person is a property of the noun and pronoun 
which vaiies the verb. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person of thing 
spoken to ; as, " Listen, O earth /" 

The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of; as, " The earth tiiirsts." 

Nouns have but two persons, the second and third. When 
a man speaks, the pronoun I or ive is always used ; therefore 
nouns can never be in the first person. In examples like the 

classes ; for it can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the 
other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. Tney may even be re- 
duced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions ; but they are in- 
trinsically the mere names of actions. The idea of action or being commu- 
nicated by them, as well as the meaning of words in general, is merely infe- 
rential. The principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Home 
Tooke, if carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving 
that we have but one part of speech. 

Adnouns or adjectives were originally noims. Sweet, red, xvhite, are the 
names of qualities, as well as siceetness, redness, whiteness. The former 
differ from the latter only in their banner of signification. To denote 
that the name of some quality or substance is to be used in connexion with 
some other name, or, that this quality is to be attributed to some other name, 
we sometimes affix to it the terrninatioi en, ed, or y ; which signifies give, 
add, or join. WTien we employ tne words wooden, wooile?i, weal tht/, grasst/, 
the terminations en and y, by their own intrinsick nieanina:, give n: tice «hat 
we intend to give, add, or join, the names of someotlier snbdtances in which 
are found the properties or quaUties of wood, wool, wealth, or grass. 

Pronouns are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their diS- 
iigreeable repptition, Partioiplpp arp r-'^rtnin forms of the verb. Articles 

4 



3S ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* 

following, some philologists suppose the noun to be in the/r** 
person:—*' This may certify, that I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby 
give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker o! 
writer, in introducing his own name, speaks of himself; con- 
sequently the noun is of the third person. 

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober 
thought is requisite ; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will 
be removed. If I say, my son, have you seen the young man? 
you perceive that the noun son is of the second person, because 
I address myself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun 
man is of the third person, because he is spoken of. Again, 
if I say, young man, have you seen my son 1 man is of th« 
second person, and son is of the third. 

" Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden- 
haired sun of the sky V 

'* Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of 
friendship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is 
asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters." 

" Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies I 
Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise !" 
'' Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore 
Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore." 
In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, val- 
leys, and hope, are of the second person, and, as you will here- 
after learn, in the nominative case independent. Course, hea- 
vens, sky. Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, 
waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore^ 
are all of the tJm'd person. 

inteijections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are co'itractiona oi 
abbreviations of nouns and verbs. Jin {a, ane, or one) comes from mianad, 
to add, to heap. The and that,^t:om t'le Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to get, as- 
sume. Lo is the imperative of look ; fy, offian, to hate ; and loelcmns means, 
it is well that you are come. In comes from the Gothick noun inna, the in 
teriour of the body ; and about, from boda, the first outward boundary. 
Through or thorough is the Teutonick noun thunih, meaning passage, gate, 
door. F)'om is the Anglo-Saxon noun/ru?ji, beginning, source, author. He 
came from {beginning) Batavia. If (formerly written gif, give, gin) is the 
imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give, I will remain if {give or 
grant that fact) he will {remain.) But comes from the Saxon verb beon-utaHf 
to be-out. I informed no one but {be-out, leave-out) my brother. 

This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner in 
which, according to Home Tooke's principles, the ten parts of speech are 
reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is the 
true principle of classification ; nor that it is anjr more philosophical or ra- 
tional than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of 
words. What has been generally received as " philosophical grammea^** 
•rpears to possess no stronger clauns to that imposing appellation than our 
oommon, practical grammars. Query. Is not M». Murray's octavo gram- 



^' ' NOUNS NUMBER. ^^ 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or 
more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular 
and the plural. 

The singular number implies but one; as, a 
book. 

The plural nimiber imphes more than one ; as* 
books, 

NOTES. 

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, 
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion, &c. ; other* 
only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snufiers, tongs, 
thanks, wages, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c. 

2. Some words are the same in both numbers j as, deer, sheep, swine , 
ajid, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

3. The pluial number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the sin 
gular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; but sometimes we add es in the plural^ 
a.s, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; cargo, cargoes. 

4. Nouns ending in/or/e, are rendered plural by a change of that termi 
nation into cm; as, half, halves; wife, wives; except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form their plurals by the addition of 5. Those end- 
ing in^^, have the regular plural ; as, ruff, ruffs; except stafl^ staves. 

5. Nouns ending m y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same 
Byllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. 
But the y is not ch3.n<yed. where there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, 
key, keys; delay, delays; attorney, attorneys.; valley, valleys; chimney, 
chimneys. 

d, Mathematicks, metaphy sicks, politicks, oplicks, ethicks, pnmmatichSy hy- 
draidicks, 4-c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns. 

7. Tne word nexos is always sin^ilar. The nouns means, alms, and 
Amends, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in significa 

mar more worthy the dignified title of a " Philosophical Grammar," than 
Homo Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," or WiUiam S. Cardell's treatises on 
language ? What constitutes a philosophical treatise, ou this, or on any 
other subject ? Wherein is there a display of philosophy in a speculative, 
etymological performance, which attempts to develop and explain the 
elements and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, 
siipo'smzr to the philosophy emplo}'ed in the development and illustration oi 
the principles by which we are governed in applying those words to theii 
legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient me- 
dium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts ? Does philoso- 
phy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in order to guess 
at the ancient construction and signification of single words 1 or have such 
investigations, in reality, any thing to do with grammar ? 

Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their m-iginal 
gignification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it does not follow, that 
thliy now possess no other powers, and, in their combinations and connex- 
ions in sentences, are employed for no other purpose, than barely to nam^ 
objects. The fact of the case is, that words are variously combined and ap^ 
pUed; to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of namiJig objects, at» 



40 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



tioB. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae, are always plural. BmJii 
is now used as the singular of Banditti. 

8. The following nouns form their plurals net according to any general 
rule ; thus, man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; tooth, 
teeth , gooso, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; brother, bro^ 
thers or'brethren ; cow, cows or kine ; penny, pence, of pennies when the 
coin is meant; die, dice /or jc/«?/, dies /or coining; pea and fish, pease and 
fish wlien the species is meant, but peas and fishes when we reter to the 
number ; as, six peas, ten fishiss. 

9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handfuls ; 
cupfrl, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls : — brother-in-law, brother-in-law ; 
court-martial, courts-martial. 

. The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the lan- 
guages from which they are adopted. 

Singtdar. 

Genius 

Genus 

Hypothesis 

Ignis fatuus 

Index 



Singular, 

Antithesis 
Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 
Basis 

Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Diaeresis 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 



Plural. 

antitheses 

apices 



< appendixes or 
\ appendices 

arcana 

automata 

axes 

bases 

beaux or 

beaus 

calces or 

calxes 
I cherubim or 
I cherubs 



critena 

data 

diaereses 

desiderata 

effluvia 



emphases 
encomia 
encomiums 
errata 



Lamina 
Magus 

Memorandum 

Metamorphosis 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Seraph 

Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertex 

Vortex 



Flurd, 

genii* 

genera 

hypothase« 

ignes fatui 
( indices ot 
\ indexesf 

laminae 

magi 
( memoranda or 
\ memorandums 

metamorphosea 

parentheses 

phenomena 
^ radii or 
\ radiuses 

stamina 
( seraphim or 
( seraphs 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertices 

vortices or 
vortexes 



* Genii, imaginary spirits : geniuses^ persons of great mental abilities. 
"t Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when 



referring to algebraick quantities. 



sertin^ truths, pointing out and limiting objects, attriiniMng qualities to objeets 
connecling objects, and so on ; and on this /acf is founded the true philosophi- 
cal prinriple of the classification of words. Hence, an arrangement of words 
into classes according to this principle, followed by a development and illus- 
tration of tlie principle's and rules that regulate us in the proper use and ap- 
plication of words in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate as 
near to a true definition of philosophical grammar, as any \ am capable of 
giving. 

J^'onns, or the names of the objects of ou:* oerceptions, doubtless con sti-" 
tutcd the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed to assume such ^ 
hypothesis as an o^nginnl class of words ;) but the ever-active principle ot 
ftSBOciatioPj soon transfornicd nouns into verbs, by ro^ng them, wheok 



NOUNS. CASE. 41 

CASE. 

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, 
means the different state, situation, or position 
they have in relation to other words. Nouns have 
three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective 

I deem the essential qualities of case, in English, to consist, 
not in the chans:es or inflections produced on nouns and pro- 
nouns, but in the various offices which they perform in a sen- 
tence, by assuming different positions in regard to other words. 
In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily ex- 
plained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things. 

Now, five grains of common sense will enable anyone to 
comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is ex- 
tremely simple ; but in the different grammars it assumes as 
many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been 
written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant 
by case ? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a 
good case, when he is fat, and in a bad ecise, when he is lean, and 
nt.'cds more oats ; and in this sense we apply the term case to 
denote the slate or condition of the horse. So, when we place a 
aoun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nomi- 
Afitive case ; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, 
we say it has another case; that is, it assumes a new position or 
situation in the sentence : and this we call the objective case. 
Thjs, ~ihe boy gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as 
acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case. But when I 
say, Jane struck the boy, I do not represent the boy as the actor, 
but bfcS the object of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case 
or condition. And when I say. This is the boy^s hat, I do not 
speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon ; but as pos- 
sessing something : for which reason he is in the possessive case. 
Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions. 

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are insep- 
arably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to un- 

' ) ^ "" 

employed in a particular manner, expressive of affirmation. This same 
principle also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing 
qualities to other names of objects ; and in this way was constituted the 
class of words called adjectives or attributes. By the sanae principle were 
formed all the other classes. 

In the following exposition of English grammar on sdav tifick pnnajp-^wi 
I shaC divide words into seven classes, J^ouns »r JVam^i 'arl 1, jC^*f«J^ 
Adnoum, or Attributes, Adverbs, Prepoaitions, 1 wiouns, ^j' C< ri»^.^ % 
Conjiectives. 

Fot an expUnation of the noun, refer to th' >.<■> « K tL 



42 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

derstand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge 
of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial 
description of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which will 
enable mc to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you 
may easily comprehend their nature. 

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold con- 
verse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to 
give names to the various objects by which they were surrounded. 
Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denomi- 
nate the noun. But merely to name the objects which they be- 
held or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They 
perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused 
some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they 
perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and & 
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, anc 
rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech. 
whose office it should be to express these existences and ac- 
tions. This second class of words we call 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which signifies to bi:, to do, 
or to SUFFER ; as, I am ; I rule ; I am ruled. 

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and 
neuter. They are also divided into regular, irre- 
gular, and defective. 

The term vitrh is derived from the Latin word verbiim, whic 
signifies a word. This part of speech is called a verb or ward^ 
because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence . 
and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, 
no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading 
part of speech ; the verb comes next in order, and is far mort 
complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in tht 
language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The 
other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as 
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance. 

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division 
of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be 
found as convenient as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to he 
consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials o\ 
this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established defi- 
nition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble 
judgment, some practical advantage to the learner is thereby 
gamed. The following, some consider a good definition. 

A VERB IS a word which expresses ajffinnation. 



VERBS. — ACTIVE 4ND NEUTER. 43 

An active verb expresses action ; and 
The nominative case is the actor, or subject of 
the verb ; as, John writes. 

In this example, which is the verb ? You know it is the word 
ioritesy because this word signifies to do ; that is, it expresses 
action^ therefore, according to the definition, it is an active verb. 
And you know, too, that the noun John is the actor, therefore 
John is in the nominative case to the verb writes. In the expres- 
sions. The man walks — The boy plays — Thunders roll — War- 
riours fight — you perceive that the words icalks, plays, roll, and 
fight, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know, 
that the nouns man, hoy, thunders, and warriours, are in the 
nominative case. 

As no action can be produced without some agent or moving 
cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some actor 
or agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the 
nominative. Nominative, from the Latin nomino, literally sig- 
nifies to name ; but in the technical sense in which it is used in 
grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of 
affirmation. This subject or nominative may he active, passive, 
or neuter, as hereafter exemplified. 

A neuter verb expresses neither action nor pas- 
sion, hut being, or a state of being; as, John sits. 

JN'ow, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, 
but, as the subject of the verb sits, therefore Jt)hn is in the nomi- 
native case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Plausible arguments may be advanced, for rejecting nmter and passive 
vferbs ; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the 
theory which recognises them, has stood the test of ages. If you tell the 
foung learner, that, in the following expressions, The church rests on its 
foundation ; The book lies on the desk ; The bo3^8 remain (are) idle, the 
nouns church, book, and boys, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the 
verbs rests, lies, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because 
there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And should you proceed 
farther, and, by a laboured and metaphysical investigation and development 
of the laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that " every portion of matter 
IS influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change," 
and, therefore, every thing in universal nature is alxvays acting, it is not at 
all probable, that you could convince his understanding, in opposition to the 
clearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory 
which they cannot comprehend ? 

Among the various theoiists and speculative writers on philosophical 
grammar, the ingenious Home Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but, unfortu- 
nately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never met the publick 
«ye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself conspiouous in the philo- 



44 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

not express apparent action, but a condition of being ; tkat w, i! 
represents John in a particular state of eristence ; therefore sits ia 
a neuter verb. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I in 
formad you, that neuter means neither ; from which it follows, 
vhat neuter gender implies neither gender; that is, neither mas- 
culine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, 
you learn, that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of 
the other two classes ; that is, a neuter verb is one which is nei- 
ther active nor passive. In these examples. The man stands — 
The lady lives — The child sleeps — The world exists — the words 
stands, lives, sleeps, and exists, are neuter verbs ; and the nouns, 
man, lady, child, and world, are all in the nominative case, be- 
cause each is the subject of a verb. Thus you perceive, that 
when a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the 
actor ; and when it is nominative lo a neuter verb, it is not slu 
actor, but the subject of the verb. 

Some neuter verbs express bein^; in general ; as. The man 
15; Kingdoms exist. Others express being in some particular 
state ; as, The man stajids, sits, lies, or hnnss. 

I will now give you two signs, which will enable you to dis- 
tinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot 
tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with 
'o before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, 
••o hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word 
„hat will conjugate, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he 
runs; I write, thouwritest, he writes ; I smile, &c. But the 
words, boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with fe 
prefixed — to boy, to lady, to world, is nonsense. Neither will 

log^ical field, by taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His 
view of the verb is novel, and ingeniously supported. • The following is the 
fiubstance of his theory 

OF THE VERB. 

A. VERB is a word which expresses action ; as, Man exists , 
Trees g-roto ; AVaters ^oiw ; Mountains sfand ; 1 anu 

All verbs are active, an^ have one object or more than one, expressed or 
implied. The pillar 5fan^^ ; that is, it keeps itself in an erect or standing 
posture ; it upholds or sustains itself in that position. They are ; i. e, they 
air themselves, or breathe air ; they inspirit, vivify, or uphold themselves by 
.nhaling air. 

Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a personal 
or verbal one implied. The clouds .tjOTe; i. e. move themselves a.\ong. The 
troops marched twenty miles a day ; i. e. marched themselves. The mooa 
shines: — The moon shines or sheds a shining, sheen, lustre, or brightness. 
The sparrow yites :— flies or takes a flight. Talkers talk or speak ward^ or 
talk ; Walkers walk walkangs or walks ; The rain rains rain ; Sitters sit or 
hold nllings or sessions. 

To prove that there is n« such thing as a neuter verb, the following ap« 
^ -y» ocar to be the strongest arguments adduced. 



VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON, 45 

they conjui^tiie — I lady, thou .adicst, &c. is worse than nonsense. 
Hence you perceive, that these words are not verbs. There are 
some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as 
nouns. This will be explained by and by. 

To verbs belong number, per son, mood, ?ind tense. 

At present I shall speali only of the number and person of 
verbs ; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their 
properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead 
you into the intricacies of the science, until, by gradual and easy 
progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles in- 
volved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you 
are prepai'ed to understand at the time they are unfolded before 
you. You must not be too anxious to get along rapidly ; but 
endeavour to become thoroughly acquainted with one piinciple, 
before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for 
the next. 

Number and person of verbs. You recollect, that the 
nominative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the «c- 
tion performed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a 
very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nomina- 
tive case and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing 
acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as, The 
girl tcrites. The nominative girl is here of the singular num- 
ber, because it signifies but one person ; and the verb writes de- 
notes but one action, wliich the girl performs ; therefore the verb 
a'rites is of the singular number, agreeing with its nominative 
girl. When the nominative case is plural, the verb nmst be 
plural ; as, girls write. Take notice, the singular verb ends in s, 

1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence ; bnt tiie 
component parts of every thing are at all times " influenced by different, 

i active principles, tending to pro^iuce change." Hence, it follows, that no 
l»eins or thing can be represented in a neuter or non-ading state. 

This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified 
wth the primary \siVfs of action, as unfolded by the principles, of physical 
science. The correctness of this position may be doubted ; but if it can 
be clearly demonstrated, that every particle of matter is always in motion, 
it does not, by any means, follow, that we cannot speak of things in a state 
of quiescence. What {% false in fact may be correct in grammar. The point 
contested, is not tchether things always act, bid xvhether, when ice assert or af- 
firm something respecting them, ice always represent them as acting. 

2. Verbs were miginally used to express the motions or changes of things 
which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterwards 
applied, in the same way, to things whose actions were not apparent. 

This assumption is untenable, and altogether gratuitous. 

3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood ; and, as this moo't 
commands some one to do something, any verb which <adopts it, must be ac- 
iTvc. Thus, in the common place phrases, " iJc there quickly ; Stand oc oi 
my way , Sit or Lie tdriher." 



46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

but the noun is generally phiral when it ends in * ,- thus, The 
girl writes^ — the girls write. 

Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs not to verbs, 
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb 
must agree with its nominative in person, as well as in number ; 
that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as 
to correspond with the first, second, or third person of the noun 
or pronoun which is its nominative. 

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree 
with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She 
It ; We, Ye or You, They, are personal pronouns. I is of thf 
first person, and singular number ; Thou is second per. sing, j 
He, She, or It, is third per. sing. ; We is first per. plural ; Ye or 
You is second per. plural ; They is third per. plural. These 
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same 
office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed 
before the verb, they are, therefore, the nominatives to the verb. 

Notice, particularly, the different variations or endings of th« 
verb, as it is thus conjugated in the 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. Per. I walk, 1. Per, We Walk, 

2. Per. Thou walkesf, 2. Per, Ye or you walk, 

3. Per. He walks, or \ 3. Per. They walk, or ) 

the boy walks, V the boys walk. } 

or y/alketh. } 
This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in 
tst, it is of the second person singular ; but when the verb ends 

It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an active sense ; but 
it is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, literal meaning. 
When I tell a man, litei-ally, to stand, sit, or lie, by moving he would disobey 
me ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," T employ the neuter verb 
stand, instead of the active verb move or go, and in a correspondent sense. 
My meaning is, Move yourself out of my way ; or take your stand somewhere 
else. This, however, does not prove that stand is properly used. If we 
choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we can employ any %oo7'd in the 
language as an active-transitive verb. Be, sit, and lie, may be explamed in 
the same manner. 

4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs wnich express the 
manner of action. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The 
child sleeps soundly; He sits genteelly; They live contentedly a.nd happily 
together. 

The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using 
adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs are not 
active. It is incorrect to say, I am happily ; They were peacefully ; She re- 
mains quietly ; The fields appear greenly. These verbs in their common 
acceptation, do not express action; for which reason we say, I am happy; 
They wore peacefid ; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps soundbj i 



VERBS. NUMBER AND PERSON. ^ 47 

in Sy or eth^ it is of the third person singular. Walkest, inatsi 
ttandestj are of the second person singular ; and walks or walk- 
eth, rides or rideth, stands or standeth, are of the third person 
singular. ^ 

1 have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, 
the verb n ust be ; when the nominative is plural, the verb must 
be ; and wher the nominative is first, second, or third person, 
the verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the 
foregoing conjugation of ^valky you will notice that the verb va- 
ries its endings in the singular, in order to agree inform with the 
first, second, and third person of its nominative ; but in the plu- 
ral it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. 
The verb, however, agrees in sense with its nominative in the 
plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and 
you will perceive that agreement and government in language do 
not consist merely in the form of words. Now, is it not clear, that 
when I say, I ivalk, the verb walk is singular, because it ex- 
presses but one action 1 And when I say. Two men ivalk, is it 
not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses 
two actions 1 In the sentence, Ten men walk, the verb walk 
^denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense 
teaches you, that there must be as many actions as there are 
actors; and that the verb, when it has no form or ending to show 
it, is as strictly plural, as when it has. So, in the phrase. We 
walk, the verb walk is first person, because it expresses the ac- 
tions performed by the speakers : Ye or you walk, the verb is 
second person, denoting the actions of the persons spoken to , 
third person, They walk. The verb, then, when correctly written, 

She sits grace/idly ; They live happily and ccnitentedly ; we employ the verbs 
sleeps, sits, and live, in an active sense. When no action is intended, we 
• say, They Uve happy and contented. 

If, on scientifick principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally 
denominated neuter, originally expressed action, their pi-esent, accepted 
meaning will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not 
attach to them the idea of action. 

Thus I have endeavoured to present a brief but impartial abstract of the 
nwdeni theor} )f the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it according 
to its value. 

To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as shall be found 
«cientifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto baffled the ski41, and 
. transcended the learning, of our philosophical writers. If its essential qua- 
lity, as is generally supposed, is made to consist in expressing affirmation, it 
remains still to be defined when a verb expresses affirmation. In English, 
and in other languages, words appropriated to express affirmation, are often 
used without any such force ; our idea of affirmation, in such instances, be- 
ing the mere inference ofci^stom. 

In the sentence,-—" Think, love, and hate, denote moral actions," the v/ora'a 
think, love, and hate, are n/j jns, because they are mere names of actions. So, 
when I say, " John, write ~— — is an irrogular verb," the word write la a 



49 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

always agrees, in sense, with its nominative in number and 
person. 

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither o 
which can be understood without a knowledge of the other. It 
therefore becomes necessary to explain them both in the same 
lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three 
cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

Possessive Case. The possessive case denotes 
the possessor of something ; as, Tliis is John^s 
horse. 

This expression implies, that John is the owner or possessor 
of the horse ; and, ihat horse is the proper/?/ which he possesses. 

When I say. These are the mevJs, and those, the boys^ hats, 
the two words, " boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they 
have any meaning at all, that the boys oivn or jyossess the hats. 
*' Samuel Badger sells hoys^ hats." Who owns the hats 1 Mr. 
Badger. How is that fact ascertained ? Not by the words, 
''boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, implyj not that they are 
JMr. Badger^s hats, nor that they are for boys, but that they are 
hats of, or heloag'm^ to, or possessed by boys. But we infer from 
the words connected with the phrase, *' boys' hats," that the boys 
are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual posses- 
sion of the hats. The possession is anticipated. 

In the phrases, ^rte hats, coarse hats, high-crownedhats, broad* 
brimmed hats, woollen, neiv, ten, some, these, many hats, tha' 
words in italicks, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, 
or define the term hats ; but the term boys' does not describa 
or limit the meaning of hats. Boys\ therefore, is not, as soma 
suppose, an adjective. 

" The slaveys master." Does the slave possess the mas- 
ter ] Yes. The slave has a master. If he has him, then, he 
possesses liim ; — he sustains that relatian to him which we call 
possession. 

noun; but when I say, "John, xorite your copy," write is called a 

veil). Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb 
in the other, when both constructions, until vou pass beyond the word 
write', are exactly alike ? If write does not express action in the former sen^ 
tence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it is introduced in the same 
manner. On scientifick principles, ■write must be considered a noun in the 
latter sentence, for it does not express action, or make an affirmation ; but it 
merely names the action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is 
laie inferential meaning. 

The verb in the infinitive, as well as m the imperative mood, is divested 
of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always presented 
in its noun-state. 

If, after dinner I say to a servant, " Tf-7?ie." he inters, that I wish hira to 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 4$ 

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its hav 
ing an apostrophe, and generally an s after it ; thus, John^s 
hat ; the boy^s coat. When a plural noun in the possessive 
case, ends in s, the apostrophe is added, but no additional s ; 
as, '* Boys^ hats ; Eagles^ wings." When a singular noun ends 
in s$, the apostrophe only is added ; as, *' For goodness^ sake ; 
for righteousness' sake ; except the word witness ; as, " The 
witnesses testimony." When a noun in the possessive case 
ends in ence, the s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained ; 
as, ** For conscience'' sake." 

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the prece- 
Jing lecture three times, and endeavour, not only to under- 
stand, but, also, to remember, what you read. In reading, pro- 
ceed thus : read one sentence over slowly, and then look off 
the book, and repeat it two or three times ever in your mind. 
After that, take another sentence and proceed in the same 
manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not pre- 
sume to think, that these directions are of no real consequence 
to you ; for, unless you follow them strictly, you need not ex- 
pect to make rapid progress. On the other hand, if you pro- 
ceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire 
a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time. — When you 
shall have complied with this requisition, you may commit the 
following order of parsing a noun, and the order of parsing a 
verb ; and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the 
following examples. 

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. 

Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis ? If you 
do not, I will explain it: and first, I wish you to remember, 
that analysis is the reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act 
of combining simples so as to form a whole or compound. 

"brino" me wine ; but all this is not said. If I say, Bring some wine, he, in 
like manner, understands, that I wish him to brinp- me wine ; but all that is 
expressed, is the name of the action, ajid of the object of the action. In fact, 
as much is done by inference, as by actual expression, in every branch of 
lang'uage, for though is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words. 

It is g-enerally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, est, eth, s, ed 
and, also, of the other parts of speech, were originally separate words of dis- 
tinct meaning- ; and that, although they have been contracted, and, by the 
refinement of language, have been made to coalesce v/ith the words in con- 
nexion with which they are employed, yet, in their present character of ter- 
minations, they retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a 
verbal name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing 
adjunct ; thus, the (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb ; and when 
they used it as a verb, they added the termination an ; thus, thoan. The 
termination added, was a sign that affirmation was intended. The same 
procedure has been adopted, and, in many instances, is still practised, in our 
tngnage. An, originally affixed to oiir verbs;, in the progress of rcfiuement> 



50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNf A.3t. 

Thus, in putting together letters so as to form syllables, sylla- 
bles so as to form words, words so as to form sentences, and 
sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is called syn- 
thetick. Analysis, on the contrary, is the act of decomposition ; 
that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into its 
simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. 
Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a 
sentence, is to separate from one another and classify the dif- 
ferent words of which it is composed ; and to analyze or parse 
a word, means to enumerate and describe all its various pro- 
perties, and its grammatical relations with respect to other 
words in a sentence, and trace it through all its inflections or 
changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to be of 
little importance ; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find 
it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and 
correct, errours in composition. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Noun, is — a noun, and 
why ? — common, proper, or collective, and why ? 
gender, and why ? — person, and why ? — ^number, 
and why ? — case, and why ? — Rule : — decline it^ 

The order of parsing a Verb, is — a verb, and 
why? — active, passive, or neuter, and why?— if 
active — ^transitive or intransitive, and why? — ^if 
passive — ^how is it formed ? — ^regular, irregular, 
or defective, and why ? — mood, and why ? — tense, 
and why? — person and number, and why? — with 
what does it agree ? — Rule : — conjugate it. 

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in 
so doing, by applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer 
all those questions given in the order. If you have perfectly 

was changed to en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural 
number of our verbs was denoted by the termination enjthus, iheyweren, they 
'owen ; but, as these terminations do not supersede the necessity of express- 
ing tiie subject of affirmation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek verbs, 
they have been laid aside, as unnecessary excrescences. For the same 
"eason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense 
with the terminations of our verbs in the singular. 

Tn support of the position, that these terminations were once separate 
words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote the feminine 
gender of some nouns, we affix ess ; as, heiress, instructress. Ess is a con- 
traction of the Hebrew noun essa, a female. Of our verbs, the termination 
ut IS 9 contraction of doest, eth, of doeth, s, of does. We say, thou dost or 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. .51 

committed the order of parsing a noun and verb, you may pro- 
ceed with me ; but, recollect, you can not parse a verb in fulL 
until you shall have had a more complete explanation of it, 
John*s hand trembles, 

John^s is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person — 
proper, the name of an individual — masculine gender, it de- 
notes a male — third person, spoken of — singular number, it 
implies but one — and in the possessive case, it denotes pos- 
session — -it is governed by the noun *' hand," according to 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is go- 
venied by the noun it possesses. 

Declined — Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plu- 
ral — nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. 

Hand is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name 
of a sort or species of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing 
without sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies 
but one — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject 
of the verb " trembles," and governs it agreeably to 

Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb : — that is, 
the nominative determines the number and person of the verb. 

Declined — Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. 
nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands. 

. Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, 4t 
expresses action — third person, singular number, because the 
nominative " hand" is with which it agrees, according to 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in nwU' 
ber and person. 

You must not say that the verb is of the third person be- 
cause it is spoken of. The verb is never spoken of ; but it is 
of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its 
nominative is. 

Conjugated — First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou trem- 
blest, 3 pers. he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 
pers. we tremble, 2 pers. ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or 
the hands tremble. 

doest love ; or thou lovest ; i, e. love-dost, or \ove-doest. Some believe these 
terminations to be contractions of havest, haveth, has. We affix ed, a con- 
traction of dede, to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action nam- 
ed, is, dede, did, doed, or dene. 

To and do, from the Gothick noun taui, signifying act or effect, are, accord- 
ing to Home Tooke, neaHy ahke in meaning and force ; and when the cus- 
tom of affixing some more ancient verbahzing adjunct, began to be dropped, 
its place and meaning were generally supplied by prefixing one of tnese. 
When I say, " I am going to wfdk,^' the verbal or affirmative force is convey- 
ed by the use of to, meaning the same as do ; and walk is employed meroly 



52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Government, in language, consist in the pow. 
er which one word has over another, in causing 
that other word to be in some particular case^ 
number^ person^ mood, or tense. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Rule 3. Tlie nominative case governs the Derb. 

If you employ the pronoun /, which is of th§ first personv 
singular number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must 
be of the first pers. sing, thus, I smile ; and when your nomina- 
tive is second pers. sing, your verb must be ; as, thou smilcst. 
Why, in the latter mstance, does the ending of the verb change 
to est ? Because the nominative changes. And if your nomi- 
native is third person, the verb will vary again ; thus, he smiles, 
the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that the nominative 
governs the verb ; that is, the nominative has power to chang<^ 
the form and meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and per- 
son. Government, thus far, is evinced in the form of the 
words, as well as in the sense. , 

Rule 4. The verb must agree ivith its nominative in num 
ber and person. 

It is improper to say, thou hear, the men hears. Why im-, 
proper ? Because hear is firsi pers» and the nominative thon 
is second pers. hears is singular, and the nom. men is plural. 
Rule 4th says. The verb must agree with its nominative. The 
expressions should, therefore, be, thou hearesi, the men hear i 
and then the verb would agree with its nominatives. But wh'^ 
must the verb agree with its nominative ? Why must we say, 
thou talkesi, the man talks, men talk ? Because the genius of 
our language, and the common consent of those who speak it, 
require such a construction : and this requisition amounts to a 
law or ride. This ride, then, is founded in the nature of things^ 
and sanctioned by good usage. 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is go- 
verned by the noun which it possesses. 

It is correct to say, The man eats, lie eats ; but we cannot 
say, The man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not ? Because the 

as a verbal name ; that is, I assert that I shall do the act which I name by 
the word walk, or the act o( walking. 

Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than 
profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientifick principles, 
whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied b}^ a verbalizing adjunct, it ia 
m the noun-state, and does not express affirmation, sfdl this" theory WOuI<l| 
be very inc^ ivenient in practice. 

1 shaJl rcaume tliis subject in Lecture XI, 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 63 

VtthA is here represented as the possessor^ and do";, the property , 
or thing possessed ; and the genius of our language requires, 
that when we add to the possessor, the thing which he is re- 
presented as possessing, the possessor shall take a particula: 
form to show its case, or relation to the property ; thus, The 
man's dog eats, his dog eats. You perceive, then, that the 
added noun, denoting the thing possessed, has power to change 
the form of the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor, ac- 
cording to Rule 12. thus, by adding dog, in the preceding ex- 
amples, man is changed to man^s, and /ie,to his. 

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the man- 
ner is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be prepared to 
analyze correctly and systematically j the following exercises. 
\Alien you parse, you may spread the Compendium before 
you ; and, if you have not already committed the definitions 
and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. 
This mode of procedure will enable you to learn all the defini- 
tions and rules by applying them to practice. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Rain descends — Rains descend — Snow falls — Snows fall — 
Thunder rolls — Thunders roll — Man's works decay — Men's 
labours cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles — 
Julia's sister's child improves — Peter's cousin's horse limps. 

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, 
which verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one 
respect. 

" Birds repose on the branches of trees." 

Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common 
the name of a genus or class — -masculine and feminine gen- 
der, it denotes both males and females — third person, spoken 
of — plural number, it impHes more than one — and in the no- 
minative case, it is the subject of the verb " repose," and go- 
verns it according to Rule 3. The worn, case governs the 
verb. Declined — Smg. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. 
Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. 

Repose is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it ex- 
presses neither action nor passion, but a state of being — third 
person, plural number, because the nominative *• birds" is 
with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. The verb must 
agree with its nominative in number and person. 

Declined — 1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposcst, 
; 3. pers. he reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur: 1. pers. we 
; repose, 2. pers. ye or you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or 
birds repose. 

.1* 



64 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

^o^^ parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distin 
guished by ilalicks^ in the following 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The hooh lies on the desk — The cloak hangs on the wall— 
J\f art's days are few — Cathmor^s warriours sleep in death — 
Clatho 7'eposes in the narrow house — Jocund day stands tiptoe 
on the misty mountain tops. The sunbeams rest on the gravo 
where her beauty sleeps. 

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all 
that follow, ^ue or six times over, if you please. 

OBJECTIVE CASE.— ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS. 
The objective case expresses the object of an 
action or of a relation. It generally follows a 
transitive verb, a participle, or a preposition. 

A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of some- 
thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object 
of an action ; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the 
preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation^ 

An active verb is transitive when the action^ 
passes over from the subject or nominative to an 
object ; as, Richard strikes John. 

Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action of 
the verb strikes is transitive^ because it passes over from the 
nominative Richard to the object John ; and you know that the 
noun John is in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
action expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This 
matter is very plain. For example : Gallileo inven ed the tel- 
escope. Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his pow- 
ers of invention, without some object in view. In order to as- 
certain that object, put the question, Gallileo invented what ? 
The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of the ac- 
tion, denoted by the transitive verb invented ; and, therefore, 
telescope is in the objective case. If I say. The horse kicks 
the servant — Carpenters build houses — Ossian ivrote poems — 
Columbus discovered America — you readily perceive, that the 
verbs kicks, build, wrote, and discovered, express transitive ac- 
tions; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the 
objective case : — they are servant, houses, poems, and America. 
- The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally 
known by the following rule : the nominative does something ; 
the objective has something done to it. The nominative gene- 



VERBS. — TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 65 

rally comes before the verb; and the objective, after it. When 
I say, George struck the servant, George is in the nominative, 
and sei'vanl is in the objective case ; but, when I say. The ser- 
vant struck George, servant is in the nominative case, and 
George is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that Case 
means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to 
other words. 

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I 
shall, therefore, tedce up this subject again, when I come to give 
you an explanation of the participle and preposition. 

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are some- 
times in the nominative case independent^ sometimes in the 
nominative case absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same 
case, and sometimes in the nominative or objective case after 
the neuter verb to 6e, or after an active-intransitive or passive 
verb. These cases are illustrated in Lecture X. and in the 21 
and 22 Rules of Syntax. 

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

An active verb is transitive, wneii the action 
terminates on an object : but 

An active verb is intransitive, when the action 
does not terminate on an object ; as, John loalks. 

i- You perceive that the verb tvalJcs, in this example, is m- 
h'ansiiivej because the action does not pass over to an object ; 
that is, the action is confined to the agent John. The follow- 
ing sign will generally enable you to distinguish a transitive 
verb from an inii^ansitive. Any verb that will make sense with 
the words a thing, or a person, after it, is transitive. Try these 
verbs by the sign, love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome. 
Thus, you can say, I love a person or thing — I can help a per- 
son or thing — and so on. Hence you know that these verbs 
are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make sense 
with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following ex- 
amples : smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, flij. We cannot 
say, if we mean to speak English, I smile a person or thing — I 
go a person or thing : — hence you perceive that these verbs are 
not transitive, but intransitive. 

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you 
will have a clear conception of the nature of transitive and in- 
transitive verbs. Before I close this subject, however, it is 
necessary farther to remark, that some transitive and intransi- 
tive verbs express what is called a mental or moral action ; and 
others, a coiyoreal or physical action. Verbs expressing tlie 



56 ETVMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. 

different affections or operations of the mind, denote morard* 
tions ; as, Brutus loved his country ; James hates vice ; Wo 
believe the tale : — to repent, to relent, to think, to reflect, tp 
mourn, to mme. Those expressing the actions produced by 
matter, denote physical actions ; as, The dog hears the bell , 
Virgil wrote the iEnead ; Columbus discovered America ; — to 
see, to feel, to taste, to s)nell, to run, to talk, to flif, to strike. 
In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the verb resembles 
does not appear to express any action at all ; yet the construc- 
tion of the sentence, and the office which the verb perlbrms. 
are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-transitivi 
verb, governing the noun father in the objective case. This 
you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the 
verb has a direct reference to its object. The following verbs 
are of this character : Have, oton, retain ; as, I have a book. 

Active iwtransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. 
When I say. The birds fly, the verb fly, is intransitive ; but 
when I say. The boy flies the kite, the verb fly is transitive, and 
governs the noun kite in the objective case. Almost any ac- 
tive intransitive verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are 
used as transitive. The horse walks rapidly ; The boy runs 
swiftly ; My friend lives well ; The man died of a fever. In 
all these examples the verbs are intransitive ; in the following 
they are transitive : The man walks his horse ; The boy ran 
race ; My friend lives a holy life ; Let me die the death ol 
the righteous. 

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is 
deemed sufficiently critical for practical purposes ; but if wc 
dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover 
qualities which do not appear ou its surface. If we throw aside 
the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, 
we shall find, that almost every verb has either a personal or a 
verbal object, expressed or implied. Verbal objects, which are 
the effects or productions resulting from the actions, being ne- 
cessarily implied, are seldom expressed. 

The lire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn wood, coaly 
tallow, or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. 
Laughs what ] Laughs laughter or laugh. They ivalk ; that is, 
They walk or take walks. Rivers flow (move or roll themselves 
or their waters) into the ocean. 

*' I sing the shady regions of the west." 

" And smile the wrinkles from the brow of ao-e." 

The child wept itself sick ; and then, by taking (or sleeping) 

short nap, it slept itself quiet and well again. " He will si^on 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 



67 



iUep his everlasting sleep ;" that is, " He will sleep the sleep of 
death." 

Thinkers think thoughts ; Talkers talk or employ ivor^ds, talk, 
or speeches ,• The rain rains rain, " Upon Sodom and Gomor- 
rah the Lord rained fire and brimstone." '* I must go the whole 
ength," I shall soon go the ivay of all the earth." 

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture at- 
tentively ; after which you may parse, systematically, the fol- 
lowing exercises containing nouns in the three cases, and act- 
ive-transitive verbs. 

The printer prints books. 

Prints is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — transitive, the action passes over from the 
aominative " printer" to the object " books" — third pers. sing, 
aumb. because the nominative printer is with which it agrees. 
Rule 4. The verb must agree with iis nominative case in num 
her and person. 

Declined — 1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. 
pers. he prints, or the printer prints, and so on. 

Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name 
Df a sort of things, neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex 
— third pers. spoken of — plur. num. it implies more than one 
— and in the objective case, it is the object of the action, ex- 
pressed by the active-transitive verb " prints," and is governed 
>y it according to 

Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

The noun books is thus declined — Sing. nom. book, poss. 
look's, obj. book — Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books. 

Rule 20. Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; that 
s, they require the noun or pronoun following them to be in 
iiat case ; and this requisition is government. Pronouns have 
I particular /orm to suit each case ; but nouns have not. We 
cannot say. She struck he ; I gave the book to they. Why 
lot ? Because the genius of our language requires the pro- 
( loun following a transitive verb or preposition {to is a preposi- 
ion) to assume that form which we call the objective form or 
3ase. Accordingly, the construction should be. She struck 
him ; I gave the book to them. — Read, again, the illustration 
jf " government" on page 52. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
JSTom. case. Trans, verb. Poss. case. Obj. case. 



Julius 


prints 


children's 


primers. 


Harriet 


makes 


ladies' 


bonnets. 


The servant 


beats 


the man's 


horse. 



5S 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 



JVbw. case. 


Trans, verb. 


Pass. case. 


Obj. case* 


The horse 


kicks 


the servant's 


master. 


The boy 


struck 


that man's 


child. 


The child 


lost 


those boys' 


ball. 


The tempest 


sunk 


those merchants 


' vessels. 


The gale 


sweeps 


the mountain's 


brow. 


Pope 


trans ated 


Homer's 


Illiad. 


Cicero 


procured 


Milo's 


release. 


Alexander 


conquered 


Darius' 


army. 


Perry 


met 


the enemy's 


fleet. 


Washington 


obtained 


his country's 


freedom. 



Note 1. The words the, that, those, and his, you need not parse, 
2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun un- 
derstood ; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.] 

As you have been analyzing notms in their three cases, it be- 
comes necessary to present, in the next place, the declension 
of nouns, for you must decline every noun you parse. Declen- 
sion n'eans putting a noun through the different cases : and you 
will notice, that the possessive case varies from the nominative 
in its termination, or ending, but the objective case ends like the 
nominative. The nominative and objective cases of nouns, 
must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in a sentence, 
or by considering the office they perform. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

SING. PLUR. 

JVom. king kings JVom^ 

Poss. king's kings' Poss. 

Obj. king. kings. Obj. 

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding exam- 
ples, (except the, that, those, and his,) you may proceed with me, 
and parse the examples in the following exercises, in which are 
presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs. 
** My Jlock increases yearly." 

Floch is a noun, a name denoting animals — a noun of multi- 
tude, it signifies many in one collective body — masculine and 
feminine gender, denoting both sexes— third person, spoken of 
— smgular number, it denotes but one flock — and in the nomi- 
native case, it is the active agent of the verb "increases," and 
governs it, according to Rule 3. The nominative case governs 
the verb. (Decline it.) 

Increases is a verb, a word that signifies to do— active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not pass over to an 
object — of the third person, singular number, because its noim 



SING. 


PLUR. 


man 


men 


man's 


men's. 


man. 


men. 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 69 

native " flock" conveys imity of idea ; and it agrees with 
" flock " agreeably to 

Rule 10. *A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, must 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 
*' The divided multitude hastily disperse." 

JVLultitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons — a collec- 
hve noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many — masculine 
and feminine gender, it implies both sexes — third person, spo 
ken of — singular number, it represents but o\ie multitude, or 
collective body ; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it con- 
veys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more individuals than 
one ;) — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject 
of the verb *' disperse," which it governs, according to Rule 3. 
The nom» case governs the verb. — Declined. — Sing. nom. multi- 
lode, poss. multitude's, obj. multitude — Plur. nom. multitudes, 
poss. multitudes', obj. multitudes. 

Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not terminate on an 
object — third person, plural number, because its nominative 
" multitude" conveys plurality of idea ; and it agrees with 
" multitude" agreeably to 

Rule 11. A noun of multitude conveying plurality ofidea, 
must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural. 

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear 
not to be based on the principles of the language ; and, there- 
fore, it might, perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them* 
Their application is quite limited. In many instances, they will 
Bot apply to nouns of multitude. The existence of such a thing 
as " unity or plurality of idea," as applicable to nouns of this 
class, is doubtful. It is just as correct to say, '* The meeting 
was divided m its sentiments," as to say, *' The meeting were 
divided in their sentiments." Both are equally supported by 
(he genius of the language, and by the power of custom. It is 
( orrect to say, either that, " The fleet were dispersed ;" " The 
council loere unanimous ;" " The council were divided ;" or that, 
" The fleet was dispersed ;" " The council ivas unanimous ;'* 
" The council was divided." But, perhaps for the sake of 
euphony, in some instances, custom has decided in favour of a 
singular, and in others, of a plural construction, connected with 
words of this class. For example ; custom gives a preference 
X) the constructions, *' '^ly people do not consider ;" " The peas- 
antry go barefoot ;" " The floch is his object ;" instead of, 
** My people doth not consider ;" " The peasantry goes bare- 
foot ;" *' The flock are his object.'* In instances like these, 
the application of the foregoing rules may be of some use ; but 



60 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

e constructions in which they do not apply, are probably moie 
numerous than those in which they do. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



JVom. case. 


Intran. 


Men 


labour. 


Armies 


march. 


Vessels 


sail. 


Birds 


fly. 


Clouds 


move. 


Multitudes 


perish. 



JVom. case. 


Intran. vet 


The sun 


sets. 


The moon 


rises. 


The stars 


twinkle. 


The rain 


descends. 


The river 


flows. 


The nation 


mourns. 



« 



Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the numbet 
of words which you parse, but on the attention which you give 
the subject. You may parse the same exercises several times over. 

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present 
another 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object ; as, 
" Earthquakes rock kingdoms ; thrones and palaces are shaken 
down ; and potentates, princes, and subjects,are buried in ond 
common grave." 

The nominative to a passive verb, is the object, but not the agentj of the 
action. 

A verb is intransitive when it has no object ; as, " The waters 
came upon me ;" " I am he who ivas, and is, and is to come." 

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now 
put to you a few questions, all of which you ought to be able to 
answer before you proceed any farther. 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 
With what two general divisions of grammar does the second 
lecture begin/? — Of what does Etymology treat ? — Of what does 
Syntax treat 1 — On what is based the true principle of classifi- 
cation ?- How do you ascertain the part of speech to which a 
word belongs 1 — What is meant by its manner of meaning ?- 
Name the ten parts of speech — Which of these are considered 
the most important 1 — By what sign may a noun be distinguish- 
ed 1 — How many kinds of nouns are there 1 — ^What belong to 
nouns ? — What is gender ? — How many genders have nouns 1 
-—What is person ? — How many persons have nouns 1 — What 
is number ? — How many numbers have nouns t — ^What is case 1 
— How many cases have nouns 1 — Does case consist in the in^ 
flections of a noun 1 — How many kinds of verbs are there ? — By 
what sign mav a verb be known ?— What belong to verbs ?— 



NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 61 

What is synthesis? — What is analysis? — ^What is parsing? — Re- 
peat the order of parsing the noun. — Repeat the order of parsing 
the verb. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the pos- 
sessive case ? — What rule, in parsing a noun in the nominative 
case 1 — What rule applies in parsing a verb 1 — What is meant 
by government? — Explain rules 3, 4, and 12. — By what rule 
are the nominative ancl objective cases of nouns known? — By 
what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive 
verb ? — Do transitive verbs ever express a moral action ?- — Are 
intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive? — Give 
some examples of transitive verbs with personal and ve,rbal ob- 
jects. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objec- 
tive case ? — Explain rule 20. — In parsing a verb agreeing with 
a noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, what rule do 
you apply ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

"Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or not, 
is, of course, left discretionary with the teacher. The author takes the liberty 
to suggest the expediency of wo?, generally, enforcing such a requisition, un- 
til the pupil goes through the book a second time. 

Name some participial nouns. — What are abstract nouns? — What is the 
distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives? — What are naturae 
nouns ? — Artificial nouns ? — What is the distinction between material ana 
immaterial nouns ? — Are nouns ever of the mascuhne and feminine gender ? — 
Give examples. — ^^Vhen arc nouns, naturally neuter, converted into the mas- 
culine or feminine gender? — Give examples. — Speak some nouns that are 
always in the singular number. — Some that are always plural. — Speak some 
that are in the same form in both numbers. — Name all the various ways of 
iorming the phiral number of nouns. — Of what number are the nouns neios^ 
means, aims, and amends ?— Name the plurals to the following compound 
nouns, handfid, cupful, spoonful, hrother-in-laxo, court-martial. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of Ian 
guage ? (page 32.) — Do the syntactical dependances and connexions of 
words depend on their original import ? — Is the power of association and 
custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some words? — Have 
words intrinsicall}'^ a signification of their own ; or is their meaning inferen- 
tial ; i. e. such as custom has assigned to them ? (page 38.) — On what fact 
is based the true, philosophical principle of classification ? — Define philoso- 
phical grammar. — Which is supposed to be the original part of speech? — 
How were the others formed from that ? — How many parts of speech may 
be recognised in a scientifick development and arrangement of the princi- 
ples of our language ? — Name them. — What testimony have we that many 
things do not act ? (page 43.) — Repeat some of the arguments in favour of, 
and against, the principle which regards all verbs as active. — In what moods 
are verbs used in their noun-state ? (page 48.) — Give examples. — What is said 
of the terminations, est, eth, s, and en, and of the words to and do ? 
REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. 

You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part 
of speech in our language ; and to convince you of their importance, I now 
tell you, that you cannot express a thought, or communicate an idea, without 

C 



62 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs express, not only 
the state or manner of being., but, likewise, all the different actions and move' 
ments of ail creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate, As yet I 
have given you only a partial description of this sort of words ; but when 
you are better prepared to comprehend the subject, I will explain all their 
properties, and show you the pi'oper manner of using them. 

A word that is generally a noun, sometimes becomes a verb ; and a verb 
IS frequently used as a naim. These changes depend on the sense whicl 
the word conveys ; or, rather, on the office it performs in the sentence ; that 
is, the manner in which it is applied to things. For instance ; glory is gene- 
rally a noun ; as, " The glcrry of God's throne." But if I say, I glory in reli- 
gion ; or, He glories in wickedness, the word glory becomes a verb. The 
love of man is inconstant. In this sentence, lofve is a norni; in the next, it is 
a verb : They love virtue. He walks swiftly ; Scavengers sioeep the streets ; 
The ship «rt?75 well. In these phrases, the words loalks, sioeeps, and saitSf 
are verbs; in the following they are nouns : Those are pleasant walks; He 
takes a broad sweep ; The ship lowered her sails. 

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a gram- 
marian without exercising your judgment. If you have suffi* 
cient resolution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly 
understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech, 
their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax 
that apply to them ; and, in a few weeks, be able to speak and 
write accurately. But you must not take things for granted, 
withoHt examining their propriety and correctness. No. You 
are not a mere automaton, or boy-machine ; but a rational being. 
You ought, therefore, to think methodically, to reason soundly, 
and to investigate every principle critically. Don't be afraid 
to think for yourself. You know not the high destiny that 
awaits you. You know not the height ta v/hich you may soar 
in the scale of intellectual existence. Go on, then, boldly, 
and with unyielding perseverance ; and if you do not gain ad- 
mittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to 
drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base. 



EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



case. 



Note 1, to Rule 12. A noun in the possessive 
should always be distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of 
elision ; as. The nation's glory. 

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. 

Not correct, because the nouns girls and boys are both in the possessive 
case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they should be dis- 
tinguished; thus, "g^rZ'tf, 6o!/5'," according to the preceding Note. fRe^ 
peat the note.] 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

If the writer of this sentence meant one ancestor, he should have inserfed 
the apostrophe after r, thus, " ancestor's;'' if more than one, after s, thus, 
♦ ancestors' virtue ;" but, by neglecting to place (he apostroohe, he has Ift» 



NOUNS AND VERBS. -FALSE SYNTAX. 63 

his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot ascertain it. This, and a thousand 
other mistakes you will often meet with, demonstrate the truth of my de- 
claration, namely, that " without the knowledge and application of gram- 
mar rules, you will often speak and write in such a manner as not to be UU' 
I derstootW'* You may now turn back and re-examine the " illustration" oi 
( Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and then correct the following examples 
about jive times over. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's 

for mans advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans 

i interest and happiness. They suffer for conscience's sake. 

' He is reading Cowpers poems. James bought Johnsons Dic- 

) tionary. 

Rule 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labours in the field. 
Nothing delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He 
dare not do it. They reads well. 

I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have 
a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the 
habit of correcting errours by applying rules ; for, by-and-by, you will meet 
with erroms in composition which you cannot correct, if you are ignorant of 
the appHcation of grammar rules. 

Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to the 
terhy and not to the noun ; therefore, in these examples the verb is ungram- 
matical. The noun hoys, in the first sentence, is of the third person plural^ 
and the verb improves is of the third person singular; therefore. Rule 4th is 
violated, because the verb does not agree with its nominative in number. It 
should be, " boys improve.^'' The verb would then be plural, and agree with 
its nominative according to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does 
not agree in person with its nominative. Thou is of the second person, and 
shuns is of the third. It should be, " t}»ou shunnest," ^c. You may correct 
ihe other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The numbei 
of inhabitants of the United States exceed nine millions. Noth- 
ing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

While ever and anon, there falls 
Huge heaps ©f hoary, moulder'd walls. 



64 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

LECTURE III. 

OF ARTICLES. 

An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit 
their signification ;* as, a man, the woman. 

There are only two articles, a or an^ and the, 
Jl or an is called the indefinite article. The is 
called the definite article. 

The indejimte article limits the nomi to one of a 
kind, but to no particular one ; as, a house. 

The definite article generally limits the noun to 
a particular object, or collection of objects ; as, the 
house, the men. 

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a dis- 
titict part of speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientifick 
classification of words. A and the, this and that, ten, few, and 
fourth, and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or de- 
fine the signification of the nouns to which they are joined. 
They might, therefore, with propriety, be ranked under the ge- 
neral head of Restrictives, Indexes, or Defining Adjectives. But, 
as there is a marked distinction in their particular meaning and 
application, each class requires a separate explanation. Hence, 
no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting their es- 
tablis-hed classification as articles, numerals, and demonstra- 
tives, and by giving them neiv names. The character and 
application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are 
styled articles, as when they are denominated specijying or de- 
fining adjectives. 

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are 
but two articles, a or an and the, you will know them wherever 
they occur. 

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is 
aken in its general sense ; as, " Fruit is abundant ;" " Gold is 
neavy ;" " Man is born to trouble." Here we mean, fruit and 
gold in general ; and all men, or manhind. 

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object, 
but to no particiUar one, we employ a or an. If I say, " Give 
me a pen ;" " Bring me an apple ;" you are at liberty to fetch 
any pen or any apple you please. A or an, then, is indefinit^.^ 
Decause it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, 



• OF ARTICLES. 5 

as fel" as regards the person spoken to, vague, or indeterminate ; 
that is, iwt definite. But when reference is made to b. particular 
object, we employ the ; as, " Give me the pen ;" " Bring me the 
apple, or the apples." When such a requisition is made, you 
are not at liberty to bring any pen or apple you please, but you 
must fetch the particular pen or apple to which you know me to 
refer. The is, therefore, called the definite article. 

" A star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known 
as a particular star, definite, and distinguished from all others, 
in the mind of the speaker ; but to the hearer, it is left, among 
the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, undistinguished 
and indefinite. But when the star has previously been made the 
subject of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker 
and hearer, b. definite object, and he says, " The star appears ;" 
diat is, that particular star about which we weie discoursing. 

*' Solomon built a temple." Did he build any temple, unde- 
lermined which ? No ; it was a particular temple, pre-eminentl 
distinguished from all others. But how does it become a defi- 
nite object in the mind of the hearer ? Certainly, not by the 
phrase, " a temple," which indicates any temple, leaving it al- 
together undetermined which ; but supposing the person addres- 
sed was totally unacquainted with the fact asserted, and it 
becomes to him, in one respect only, a definite and particular 
temple, by means of the associated words, *' Solomon built;" 
that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, 
the hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as the ona 
erected by Solomon. If the speaker were addressing one whom 
he supposed to be unacquainted with the fact related, he might 
make the temple referred to a still more definite object in the 
mind of the hearer by a farther explanation of it ; thus, '' Solomon 
built a temple on mount Zion ; and that was the temple to which 
the Jews resorted to ivorship.^^ 

" TJie lunatick, the poet, and the lover, 
" Are of imagination all compact." 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
A, AN, THE. 

In a scientifick arrangement of grammatical principles, a and the belong 
to that class of adjectives denominated definitives or restrictives. 

A, an, ane, or one, is the past participle of ananad, to add, to join. It de- 
notes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is added, united, aned, an-d, oned, 
(tooned,) or made one. 

The and that. According to Home ToQke,the is the imperative, and thai, 
the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean,to get, take, assume. Tlie 
and that had, originally, the same meaning. The difference in their present 
application, is a modern refinement. Hence, that, as well as the, was for- 
merly used, indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun. 



(>6 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

" The horse is a noble animal ;" " The dog is a faithful crea 
ture ;" " The wind blows;*' " The wolves were Howling in tht 
woods." In these examples, we do not refer to any particular 
lunaticks, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, 
but we refer to these particular classes of things, in contradis- 
tinction to other objects or classes. The phrase, " Neither the. 
one noi the other," is an idiom of the language. 

Remarks. — This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular with 
Blair, Priestley, Lov/th, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and .many 
other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. 
But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it 
appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected. 

Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with cme 
that is more convenient in practice. Neither have they adopted one less ex- 
ceptionable. The triith is, after all which can be done to render the defini- 
tions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they v.ill still be 
found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less 
exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable 
consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as w^eli ag 
every thing else of human invention, will al .vays be imperfect. Consequently, 
a perfect system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A peifect 
grammar wUl not be produced, until some perfect being v.-rites it for a per- 
fect language ; and a perfect language will not be constructed, vmtil some 
super-huni'in agency is employed in its production. All giammatical prin- 
ciples and systems wliich are net perfect, are exceptionable. 
NOTES. 

1. The article is omitted before nouns implying the different virtues, vices, 
passions, qualities, sciences, arts, me>als, herbs, &c. ; as, " Modesty is becom' 
ing ; Falsehood is odiou-s ; Gi-ammar is useful," &c. 

2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, Barron Idlled Decatur ; 
except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular fa- 
mily, or when some noun is understood ; as, " He is not a Franklin ; He is 
a Lee, or of the family of the Lees ; AVe sailed down the (river) Missouri." 

3. An adjective is frequently placed between the article and the noun with 
which the article agrees; as, "A good boy; an industrious man." Some- 
times the adjective precedes the article ; as, " As great a man as Alexander ; 
Such a shame." 

4. In referring to many individuals, when we ^vish to bring each separate- 
ly under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between 
the adjective many and a singular noun ; as, "Where many a rosebud reara 
its blushing head ;" "Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." 

5. The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the compara- 
tive or superlative degree ; as, " The more I examine it, the better I like it ; 
I like this the least of any." 

You may proceed and parse the following articles, w^hen you 
shy 11 have committed tliis 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Aiticle, is — aii article 
and why? — definite or indefinite, and why 1 — with 
what noun does it agree ? — Rule. 



ARTICLES. PARSIN*. 67 

" He is the son of o king.'' 

The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signifi- 
cation — definite, it limits the noim to a particular object — it 
belongs to the noun " son," according to 

Rule 2. The definite article the belongs to notins in the sin- 
gidar or plural mmiber, 

A is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signi- 
fication — indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no 
paiticular one — it aijrees with "king," agreeably to 

Rule 1. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular 
number orJy. 

Note. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety 
ot Rule 1, will appear. A or ffw, (formeriv written one,) being equivalent to 
one, any one, or some one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural nunriber. 
There is, however, an exception to this rule. *3 is placed before a plural 
no-m when cny ot the following adjectives come between the article and the 
noan ; fete, great niatm, dozen, hundred, tlwusand, million ; as, o few meny a 

vfter ha\-ing parsed these articles several times over, please 
r . read this third lecture three times. Then turn back, and ex- 
amine the second lecture critically, observing to parse every ex- 
ample according to the directions previously given, which will 
pp^pcire you to parse systematically, all the articles, noims, and 
verbs in these subsequent 

EXERCISES IX PARSING. 

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The mul- 
titude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer^s grain. 
Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The 
clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's 
tiorse. Cecrops founded Athens. Galhleo invented the teles- 
cope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir 
Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin 
Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote 
the Sketch-Book. 

I will now ofier a few remarks on the misappHcation of the 
articles, which, with the exercise of your owti discriminating 
powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before 
you proceed, please to answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many articles aie there ? — ^In what sense is a noun taken, 
when it has no article to limit it ? — Repeat the order of parsing 
an article.— What rule apphes in parsing the definite article t — 
Whit rile in jiarsing the indefinite ? 



CB ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Before what nouns is the article omitted ? — Is the article the ever applied 
to adverbs ? — Give examples. — What is the meaning of a or an ? — ^When is 
a or an placed before a plural noun ? — From what are a, the, and that derived ? 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note to Rule 1. An is used before a vowel or silent k, 
land a before a consonant or to long, and also before the word 
one. 

It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper 
to say, a apple, a humble suppliant, an hero, an university, because the word 
apple begins with a vowel, and h is not sounded in the word humble, for 
which reasons a should be an in the first two examples ; but, as the h is 
sounded in heroj and the u is long in university, a ought to be prefixed to 
these words: thus, an apple, an humble suppliant: a hero, a university. 
You may correct the following 

EXAMPLES. 

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, 
an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. 
This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He 
would not give an hat for an horse. 

Note 1, to Rule 2. The articles are often properly omit- 
ted : when used they should be justly applied, according to their 
distinct character ; as, *' Gold is corrupting ; The sea is green; 
j3 lion is bold.'* It would be improper to say, The gold is cor 
rupting ; Sea is green ; Lion is bold. 

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass 
IS good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks 
well. Wheat is blighted. 

In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind 
of grass or wheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular 
crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat ; but we are speaking of grass 
and wheat generally, therefore the article the should be omitted. In the se- 
cond sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quahty, or number oi 
horses or men ; but to horses and men generally ; that is, the terms are here 
used to denote whole species, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the 
sentence should read thus, " Grass is good for horsee, and wheat for mert.'' 

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the 
crops of gross and wheat now on the ground, which, in contradistinction to 
the crops heretofore raised, are considered as particular objects ; therefore 
we should say, « The grass looks well ; The wheat is blighted." 

Note 2. When a noun is used in its general sense, the 
article should be omitted; as, ^^ Poetry is a pleasing art;" 
" Oranges grow in New-Orleans." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Corn in the garden, grows well ; but corn in the field, docq 
not. How does the tobacco sell 1 The tobacco is dear. How 
do you like the study of the grammar ? The grammar is a 



OF ADJECTIVES. * 69 

|i leasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man 
World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this 
way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, 
are the four elements of the old philosophers. 



LECTURE IV. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
express its quality or kind, or to restrict its 
meaning ; as, a good man, a had man, a free 
man, an unfortunate man, one man, forty men. 

In the phrases, a good apple, a had apple, a large apple, a 
small apple, a red apple, a lohite apple, a green apple, a sweet 
apple, a sour apple, a hitter appk, a round apple, a hard apple, 
a soft apple, a melloiv apple, a, fair apple, a JVlay apple, an early 
apple, a late apple, a winter apple, a crah apple, a thorn apple, a 
well-tasted apple, an ill-looking apple, a water-cored apple, you 
perceive that all those words in italicks are adjectives, because 
each expresses some quality or property of the noun apple, or 
it shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking. 

The distinction between a noun and an adjective is very clear. 
A noun is the name of a thing ; but an adjective denotes simply 
the quality or property of a thing. This is fine cloth. In this 
example, the difTerenee between the word denoting the thing, 
and that denoting the quality of it, is easily perceived. You 
certainly cannot be at a loss to know, that the word cloth ex- 
presses the name, and fine, the quality, of the thing ; conse- 
quently ^ne must be an adjective. If I say. He is a ivise man, 
Si prudent man, a iiricked man, or an ungrateful man, the words 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
ADNOUNS. 
Adnmin, or Adjective, comes from the Latin, ad and jicio, to add to. 
Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, 
»r to determine their extension. Those which efTect the former object, are 
.Jailed adjectives, or attributes; and those which effect the latter, restrictives. 
h is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun 
; ihould be referred. Words which express simply the qualities of nouns, are 
• adjectives ; and such as denote their situation or number, are restrictivea. 
Adjectives were onginalty nouns or verbs. 



70 KTYMOLOGT AND SYNTAX. . 

in italicks are adjectives, because each expresses a qualily *4 
the noun man. And, if I say, Pie is a tall man, a short man, a 
uhite man, a hlacJz man, or a persecuted man, the words, tall, 
short, white, black, and persecuted, are also adjectives, because 
they tell what kind of a man he is of whom I am speaking, oi 
they attribute to him some particular property. 

Some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns 
to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called 
definitives; as, one era, seven ages, the first man, the wJwle mass, 
no trouble, those men, that book, all regions. 

Other adjectives define or descnbe nouns, or do both ; ^s^fine 
silk, blue paper, a heavy shower, pure water, green mountains, 
hlund breezes, gurgling nils, glass ^Nindow, window glass, 
heaver hats, chip bonnets, hla^kherinj ridge, Monroe garden, 
Juniata iron, Cincinnati steam-mill. 

Some adjectives are secondary, apd qualify other adjectives ; 
as, pale red lining, dark blue silk, deep sea green sash, soft iron 
blooms, red hot iron plato. 

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun ; 
as, " Those me/i are tall ; A lion is bold ; The weaiher is cairn; 
The tree is three feet thicks 

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from 
the other parts of speech, the following sign wall enable you to 
tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word thing ad- 
ded, or with any other noun follo-wTng it, is an adjective ; as, a 
high thing, a low thing, a hot thing, a cold thing, an unfinished 
thing, a new-fashioned thing: — or, a pleasant prospect, a long- 
deserted dv/elling, an American , soldier, a Greek Testament. 
Are these words adjectives, distant, yonder, peacefid, long-sided, 
double-headed 7 A distant object or thing, yonder hill, SfC. 
They are. They will make sense -with a noun after them. — 
Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter will be 

Some consider the adjective, in its present application, exactly equivalent 
to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a prepo- 
sition, or of a corresponding flexion. " A golden cup," say they, " is the same 
as a gold cup, or a cup ofgoW^ But this principle appears to be exception 
able. "A cup ofgdd," may mean either a cnp-fidl of gold, or a cup made ol 
gold. " An oaken cask," signifies an oak cask, or a cask of oak ; i. e. a cask 
made of oak ; but a beer cask, and a cask of beer, are two different things. A 
virtuous son ; a son of virtue. 

The distinguishing characteristick of the adjective, appears to consist in 
Its both 7iaming a quality, and attrihiting that quality to some object. 

The terminations en, ed, and ig, (our modem y,) signifying give, add^joiUf 
denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be at- 
tributed to other nouns possessing such quaUties t wood-en, wood-y. Sea 
page 37. 

l>0 is ihe past participle of the verb leave. Home T»oke defio^s rigfU Uk 



ADJECMVES. 71 

explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know 
an adjective by its qualifying a noun or pronoun. 

Most words ending in ing are present participles* These are 
frequently used as adjectives ; therefore, most participles will 
make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other 
noun, after them ; as, a pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, 
mouldering ruins. 

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, 
have gender, number, £ind case ; but in the Enghsh language, 
they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These 
properties belong to creatures and things, and not to their quali" 
ties i therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the pro- 
peities of nouns, and not of adjectives. 

Adjectives are varied only to express the de- 
grees of comparison. They have three degrees 
of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, 
and the Superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the quahty of 
an object without any iucrease or diminution ; as, 
good^ wise, great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens 
the positive in signification; as, better^ wiser , 
greater^ less wise. 

The superlative e?egree increases or lessens the 
positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, be^ty 
wisest^ greatest^ least vjise. 

be that which is ordered or directed. The right hand is that which your pa- 
rents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when 
you employ that in preference, the other is the leaved, leaved, or left hand ; 
t e. the one leaved or left. " The one shall be taken, and the other (leaved^ 
Itfi." 

Own, Formerlv. a man*s own was what he worked, for, own being a past 
partifipl^ of a veib signifying to work. 

Restrictives. Some restrictives, in modem times, are applied only to sin 

gular nouns ; such as a or an, another, one, this, that, each, every, either. Others, 

ooly to plural nouns ; as, these, those, two, three, few, several, all. But most 

restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns : 

first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what. 

J^umerals. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the 

' " fingers ; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signi- 

, fication. Ten is the past participle of iynan, to close, to shut in. The hands 

"^^ tjiierf, <cn«tZ, closed, or shut in, signified ten; for there numeration cZo^eJ. 

' To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, ten and one, ten 

'*• indhro, &c 



T2 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

More and most form the comparative and superlative degrees by increaainr.' 
the positive j and less and leasts by diminisliing it. 

Comparison by increasing the positive. 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

great, greater, greatest. 

wise, wiser, wisest, 

holy, more holy, most holy, 

frugal, more frugal, most frugal. 

Comparison by diminishing the positive. 

Pos, Comp, Slip, 

wise, less wise, least wise, 

holy, less holy, least holy, 

frugal, less frugal, least frugal. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIYES. 

Words used in counting, are called ?mmerai 
adjectives of the cardinal kind ; as, one^ two, 
three, four, twenty, fifty, &c. , 

Words used in numbering, are called numeral \ 
adjectives of the ordinal kind ; as, first, second, i 
third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, &c. 

Note. The words m,any,feio, and several, as they always refer to an in 
definite number, may be properly called numei-al adjectives" oi' the indefinite 
kind. 

NOTES. 

1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding r, 
or er ; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adtling st, or est, to the i 
end of it; as, Pos. wise. Com. wiser, Sup. wisest ; rich, richer, richest ; bold, i 
bolder, boldest The adverbs, more and most, less and least, when placed be- ' 
fore the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Pos, wise, Com. more wise, Sup. 
most wise ; Pos. wise, Com. less wise. Sup. least wise. 

Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound of two {twa, twae, twee 
iwi, two or dwo or duo) and one iane, ain, an.) It sig-nifies two units joined^ 
united, aned^ or oned. Twenty {.twa-ane-ten) signifies tioo tens aned, oned, or 
united. Things separated into parcels of twenty each, are called scores 
Score is the past participle of shear, to separate. 

The Ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in eth. Ftf*h, sixth, or 
tenth, is the number ^ffhich.Jiv-eth, six-eth, ten-etk, or m.ak-eth up the num- 
ber j'ire, sir, or ten. 

Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which 
they were originally employed, and suppose that all the com.plicatedj yet 
often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and in- 
tellect has connected wilh'words, are to be reduced to the standard of om 



ADJECTIVES. — PAUSING. 73 

9. J\fonosyUahles are generally compared by adding er and est; dissyllables^ 
trisyllables, ikc, hymoi c and mo9t; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more 
frugal, most frugal ; virtuous, more virtuous, most.virtuous. Dissyllables 
endins: in y; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute ; as, able, ample ; and 
dissyllables accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite ; easily admit 
of er and est; as, happier, happiesf ; pohtcr, politesf. Words of more than 
two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations. 

3. When the positive ends in d, or t, preceded by a single vowel, the con- 
sonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, 
red, redder^ reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 

4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding most to the end of 
them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, fore- 
most. 

5. In English, as m most languages, there are some words of very common 
086, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that 
are irregular in formmg the degrees of comparison ; as, " Good, better, best ; 
bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, 

I nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest 
; or eldest j" and a few others. 

6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the stcperla- 
' Hve degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they car- 
ry in themselves a superlative signification : chief, extreme, perfect, right, 
wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, end- 
fcw, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent,all-wise, eternal. 

7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from 
the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison ; such as, loell-foi'med, frost- 
hUten, round, square, oblong, circular, quadrangular, corneal, ^c. 

8. The termination ish added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of 
auality below the comparative ; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. Very, pre- 
fixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a su- 
perlative degree. 

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the Notes ; after 
which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, 
I and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat 
jail the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you 
parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

Tlie order of parsing an Adjective, is — an 
adjective, and why? — compare it — degree of 
comparison, and why ? — to wnat noun does it be- 
long? — Rule. 

^efathers, appear not to have sufficiently attended to the changes which this 
'{^inciple of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from 
feneration to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas 
irith which they were not originally associated ; and thus they undergo a 
change, not only in the mode of their application, but also in their meaning. 
Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as 
limch, at least, as tffings themselves change ; but this variation in their im- 
port more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the 
^ connected with a word, that which was once of primary, becomes only 



74 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

" That f^mt nation loas once powerful ; but now it is feeble.^* 

Great is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its 
^juality — pos. great, oomp. greater, sup. greatest — ^it is in the 
oositive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any 
increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun " nation," ac 
cording to 

Rule 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed 
or understood. 

Was is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it expres- 
ses neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being — 
ihird person singular, because its nominative " nation" is a noun 
of multitude conveying unity of idea — it agrees with ** nation," 
agreeably to 

Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveytns; unity of idea, may 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 

Powerful is an adjective belonging to " nation," according to 
Rule 18. Fee6/e belongs to " it," according to Note 1, under 
Rule 18. Is is a neuter verb agreeing with '* it," agreeably to 
Rule 4. 

" Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men." 

Four'hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal 
kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to . the noun 
" men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18. JVmneral adjec- 
tives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with thtir 
adjectives* 

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words 
about which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and 
parse all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable 
you to proceed without any difficulty. 

More is an adverb. Of and to are prepositions, governing 
the nouns that follow th«m in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scho- 
lars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large 
ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens ; the lighter ships 
carry less burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Un- 

cf secondary importance ; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its 
connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some acci- 
dental causes, it has been associated. 

Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an 
ancient EngUsh version of the New- Testament, we find the following lan- 
guage : " I, Paul, a rascal of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But 
"•rho. in tlie present acceptation of the \^iord, wquM darje to call " the great 
apostle of the Gentiles" a rascal 7 Rascal formerl^negnt aj^etiJaHf ; one de- 
moted to the interest of another ; but now it is nearly synonymous with 



ADJECTIVES. — PARSING. ' 75 

grammatical expressions offend a true critick's ear. Weak 
cxiticks magnifj trifling eriours. No composition is perfect. 
The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass looka 
green. Shady trees form a delightful arbour. The seiung sun 
makes a beautiful appearance ; the variegated rainbow appears 
more beautiful. Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban 
generals ; Pelopidas was next to Epaminondas. 

The first fleet contained tluee hundred men ; the second 
contained four thousand. The earth contains one thousand 
million inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good 
man's pathway. 

Note. Like^ Worth. The adjective like is a contraction of the partioiple 
likeiud, and generally has the preposition unto understood after it. " She is 
like [unto] her brother;" "They are tinlike [to] him." "The kingdom of 
heaven is like [likened or made like] unto a householder." 

The noun worth has altogether dropped its associated words. " The cloth 
IS worth ten dollars a yard ;" that is, The cloth is of the worth of ten dollars 
by the yard, or for a, one, or every yard. 

Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellip 
BIS after like, worth, ei-e^ but, except, and than, but consider them preposi- 
tions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work. 

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. 

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, 
should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood ; aa, 
" The virtiwus [persons] and the sincere [persons] are always respected ;'* 
** Providence rewards the good [people,] and punishes the bad [people.]" 
" The evil [deed or deeds] that men do, Hves after them ; 
" The good [deed or deeds] is oft interred with their bones." 
: But sometimes the adjective, by its manner of meaning, becomes a :)omi, 
and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief good;" " The vast im^ 
mense [immensity] of space." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjec- 
li?e8, according to their manner of meaning; as, ^^Sea fish, iron mortar, wint 
vessel, gold watch, com field, tneadow ground, mountain height." 
. The principle which recognises custom as the standard of* grammatical ac 
ruracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only six words, and defy 
all the subtleties of innovating skepticks to gainsay it. If the genius and 
analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe 
this analogy, and say, " Good, gooder, goodest; bad, badJer, haddest; little, 
littler, littlest; much, muchcr, ranches/." "By this mean;" "What are the 
news." But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who at- 
tempt to estabhsh it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philo- 
sophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this ir 
stance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to custmn, and say, " Good, 

villain. Villain once had none of the odium w hich is now associated with 
the term ; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held 
lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, " As 
you are an acxx)mplished villain, I order that you receive £700 out of the 
publick treasury." The word villain, then, has given up its original idea, and 
bocome the reprcsentatrve of a »ew one, the word tenant hav.ng supplanted 
it. To prove that the meaning of words changes, a thousand examples 
could be adduced ; but with the intelligent reader, proof is nnocessary. 



76 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

beiUTy best; bad, worse, worst ; little, Zm5, least} much, nwy, mo.«/;" "By 
this means ;" " What is the neios ?" 

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must 
he taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity, or nonsense. 
Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, put 
you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen oa 
paper to write, weigh well in your mind the meanmg of the words which you 
are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you 
wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errours. In 
speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he is very wicked, or ex- 
ceedingly lavish, because the terms lolcked and lavish are adjectives that ad- 
mit of comparison ; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, 
there is a solecism in calling a man very honest, or exceedingly just, for the 
words honest a.ndjtist, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a 
man is honest or dishonest, just or unjust : there can be no medium or excess 
in this respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, vey^ wrong, are 
common expressions ; but they are not literally proper. What is not coV' 
red, must be incorrect ; and that which is not incorrect, must be correct : 
what is not right, must be wrong; and that which is not icrong, must be 
right. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our 
best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do 
not hterally admit of comparison : " The most established practice ;" " The 
most uncertain method ;" " Irving, as a writer, is far more accurate than Addi 
son ;" " The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, are 
still more incomprehensible to the learner." Comparisons like these, should 
generally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, 
as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with 
the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative. 

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in direct opposition to 
each others as "Pope was rich, but Goldsmith was poor.''^ The following 
sentences are inaccurate : " Solomon was vAser than Cicero was eloquent." 
" The principles of the reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to 
be easily eradicated." This latter sentence contains no comparison at all ; 
neither does it literally convey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had 
said, " I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, 
because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But m 
sajring, " I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himse'**one ol 
them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. 

Before you proceed anj farther, you may answer the follow- 
ing 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 
What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective ?— - 
By what sign may an adjective be known? — Are participles 
ever used as adjectives'? — Does gender, person, number, or 
case, belong to adjectives? — How are they varied? — Name ihe 
three degrees of comparison. — ^What effect have less and least 
in comparing adjectives ? — Repeat the order of parsing an ad 
jective. — What rule applies in parsing an adjective? — ^Whatrule 
in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying 
unity of idea ? — -What Note should be appUed in parsing an ad- 
jective which belongs to a pronoun ? — -What Note in parsing 
numeral adjectives 1 



ADJECTIVES. FALSE SYNTAX. • 77 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Ri^peaf ail tlie rai-ious ways of Forming the degrees of comparison, men- 
tioned m Ihe first five Notes. — Compare these adjectives, ripe, fnigal, mia- 
cldetiQUS, happy, able, good, little, much or many, near, late, old. — Name 
some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared.- - 
Are compound adjectives compared ? — What is saicf of the termination ish, 
and of the adverh very 7 — When does an adjective hecomc a noun ? — 'Vhat 
character does a noun assume when placed before another noun ? — How 
caft you prove that custom is the standard of grammatical accuracy? 
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How are adnouns divided ? — What constitutes tlie true character of an 
adjective ? — What are the signification and denotement of the terminations, 
en, ed. and ig ? — What do left and oim signify ? — Name the three ways in 
which restrictives are applied.— How was numeration originally performed ? 
— What in* said of tioain, txocniy, score, and the ordinal numbers ? — What is 
said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of 
association ? . 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 9, und^r Rule 18. Double Comparatives and Sttper- 
/a/tr 65 should be avoided ; such as, worsevy lesser^, more deeper, 
\nore wickeder &c. : chief est, supremest^ perfectest, rightcst ; or 
more perfect, most perfect, most supreme, &c. 

Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should 
i8 his chiefest desire. 

He mad^, the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light 
'.o rule the night. 

The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are 
iicorreet, because supreme and, cfvief are in the superlative degree without 
having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double 
enperlatives. They should be written, " confers suprcine dignity," and 
" his chief desire," 

We can say, one thing is less than another, or smaller than another, be- 
cause the adjectives /ess and smaller are in the comparative degree; but 
the phrase " lessn' light," in the second sentence, is inaccurate. Lesser is 
a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be 
avoided. Lesser is as incorrect as badder, gooder, worser, " The smaller 
light," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without 
ny assistance. Correct them four times over. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than 
chose of imagination or sense. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which mns the faster the 
lesser weight it carries. 

The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

The Most Highest hath created us for his glory. 

He was admitted to the chiefest offices. 

The first witness gave a strong proof of the fac* ] the next, 
a more stronger still ; but the last witness, trie mosc strongest 
of all. 

He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truest 
fiiendship. 

7* 



74^ ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

LECTURE V. 

OF PARTICIPLES 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb.j 
and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of 
an adjective. 

Verbs have three participles, the present oij 
hnperfect, the perfect, and the compound. 

The prese77t or imperfect participle denotes ac- 
tion or beieg continued, but not perfected. W 
always ends in tng ; 2.^, ruling, being: " I am- 
tvriting a letter." 

The j9<?rfecf participle denotes action or being' 
perfected or finished. When derived from a regu-' 
far verb, it ends in ed, and corresponds with the, 
imperfect tense ; as, ruled, smiled: " The letter 
is written.''^ 

The compound participle implies action or be- 
ing completed before the time referred to. It is 
formed by placing having before the perfect par- 
ticiple ; diS, having ruled, having been ruled: '^Hav- 
ing written the letter, he mailed it.'' 

The term Participle comes froiii ihe Latin wor3 particifio, 
which signifies to 'partake ; and this name is given to this ptirt of 
speech, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and oi the 
adjective. 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. 
Tng signifies the same as the noun being. IVnen postfixed to the noun-stat3 
of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a contimiod state of 
the verbal denotement. It imphes that v/hat is meant by the verb, is being 
continued. En is an alteration of an, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct ; ed is 
a contraction of dede ; and the terminations d and t, are a contraction of ed. 
Participles ending in ed or en, usually denote the dodoy dede, doed, did, d/me, 
or finished state of what is meant by the verb. The book is printed. It is 
a jn-inUed or print-done book, or such a one as the done act of printing has 
made it. The book is written ; i. e. it has received the done or finish-ed act 
of tonf-ijig it. 

Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nouns. 
They might, therefore, be styled verbal adjectives. But that theory which 
ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a aandy foundation. In claaai- 



PARTICI?L«S. 79 

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and 
treated as a part of it ; but, as it has no nominative, partakes ol 
the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which 
apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties 
peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently dis- 
tinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of 
speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only the 
adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb. 

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like 
verbs, they express action and being, and denote time ; and, like 
adjectives, they describe the nouns of whicli they denote the ac- 
tion or being. In the sentences, The boatman is crossing the 
river; I see a man labouring in the field ; Charles is standing ; 
you perceive that the participles crossing and labouring express 
the actions of the boatman and the man, and standi7ig the state of 
being of Charles.. In these respects, then, they partake of the 
nature of verbs. You also notice, that they describe the several 
nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives ; and that, 
in this respect, they participate the properties of adjectives. And, 
furthermore, you observe that they denote actions which are still 
going on ; that is, incomplete or unjinished actions; for which 
reason we call them imperfect participles. 

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When 
the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before 
nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are de- 
nominated participial adjectives ; as, A loving companion ; The 
rippling stream ; Roaring wmds ; A wilted leaf; An accom- 
vlishea scholar. Here the words loving, rippling, roaring, vjilf- 
ea, and acconiphshea, describe or define the nouns with which 
they are associated. And where the participles are placed after 
their nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I 

fying words, we ought to be guided more by their manner of meaning, and 
their inferenticu meaning, than by their pnmitive, essential signification. 

"1 have a broken plate ;" i. e. I have a plate — broken; " I have broken a 
plate." If there is no difference in the essential meaning of the word broken^ 
m these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide differ- 
ence in the meaning infeiTed by custom ; which difference depends on the 
manner in wliich the term is applied. The former construction denotes, that 
I possess a plate which was broken, (whether with or wdthout my agency, is 
not intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ao:o ; whereas, 
the meanmg of the latter is, that I jierformed the act of reducmg the plate 
from a whole to a broken state ; and it is not intimated whether I possess it, 
or Bome one else. It appears reasonable, that, in a practical grammar, at 
least, any word which occurs in constructions differing so widely, may pro- 
perly be classed with different parts of speech. This illustration likewise 
eatabliBhes the propriety of retaining what we call the perfect tense of the 
verb. 



so ETYMOLO»iY AND SYNTAX. 

see the moon rising ; The horse is running a race ; The dog is 
beaten ; I describe the several objects, a:s a rising moon, a run- 
ning horse, and a beaten dog, as well as when I place these parti- 
ciples before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a par 
ticipial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The pre 
cedmg illustration, however, shows that this distinction is founded 
on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. 
The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one 
from the other. 

Participles^^ ^ Participial adjectives. 

See the sun setting, , . . , See the setting sun. 
See the moon n^mg*. , / See the nVmg" moon. 

The wind is roaring. Hear the roaring wind. 

The twig.is broken. The broken twig fell. 

The vessel anchored in the bay, .The anchored vessel spreads 
lost her mast. ^. ♦ . . her sail. 

The present or imperfect participle is knqwn by its ending in 
ing ; as, float«io-, riding, hearing-, seeing-. These are derived 
from the verbs float, ride, hear, and see. But some words end- 
ing in ing are not participles ; such as evening, mornings hire- 
ling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontr oiling. Wlien 
you parse a word ending in ing, you should always consider 
whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as 
interest, hence you know that the word interesting is a partici- 
ple ; but there is no such verb as iMiinterest, consequently, m/i- 
interesting can not be a participle : but it is an adjective ; as, an 
uninteresting story. You will be able very easily to distinguish 
the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have 
acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb. 

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, 
shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, 
overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. learning, Perf. learned, 
Comp. having learned. Pres. walking, Perf. walked, Cora- 
pound, having walked, and so on. 

You may now commit the order of parsing a participle, and 
then proceed with me. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Participle, is — a parti- 
ciple, and why ? — ^from what verb is it derived ? — 
speak the three — present, perfect, or compound, 
and why? — to what does it refer or belong?— 
Rule. 



I 



PARTlCil'LES. 81 

" I saw a vessel sailing ^ 

Sailinc' is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes 
of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes from 
the verb to sail — pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed — 
it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the 
continuance of an unfinished action — and refers to the noun 
" vessel" for its subject, according to 

Rule 27. The present participle refers to some noun or pro 
noun denoting the subject or actor. 

" Not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow." 

Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to 
express its quality — it cannot, with propriety, be compared — it 
belongs to the noun " billow," agreeably to 

Rule 18. ^Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed 
er understood. 

You will please to parse these two words several times over, 
and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th 
Rule. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to 
agree with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has 
no agreement ; but it simply refers to an actor. Examples : 
I see a vessel sailing ; or, I see three vessels sailing. You 
perceive that the participle sailing refers to a singular noun in the 
first example, and to a plural noun in the second ; and yet the 
participle is in the same form in both examples. The noun rcs- 
sel is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb 
see. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb 
generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nomi- 
native ; as, the vessel sails ; the vessels sail. 

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule 
that relates to the participle. In the sentence, " The man is 
beating his horse," the noun horse is in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transi- 
tive participle " beating," and it is governed by the participle 
beating, according to 

Rule 26. Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived. ? 

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite appa- 
rent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses 
the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the 
participle must govern the same case as the verb from wliich it is 
cerived. 

\Mien you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may 
proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts 
^i speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words 



gj ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

which you cannot parse correctly and aystematically by referring 
to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to 
turn back and read over again the whole Jive lectures. You must 
exercise a little patience ; and, for your encouragement, permit 
me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough 
knowledge of these five parts of speech, only Jive more will re- 
main for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in 
your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. 
By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more 
grammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly ob- 
tained in tivo years. 

In the following examples, the words purling^ crusted, slum- 
beringy and twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its 
you may omit. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Orlando lefl the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young 
dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. 
Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's 
surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The 
slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale 
Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling 
stars adorning night's blue arcn. The stranger saw the desert 
thistle bending there its lonely head. 

REMARKS ON PAR/^CIPLES. 

Participles frequently become nouns ; as, " A »ood understanding ; Ex- 
cellent wHting ; He made a good beginning, but a bad etiding,^^ 

Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best 
authorities: " The goods are se/Zing* ;" " The house is 6uf/</mg*;" The woik 
is now publishing^ A modern innovation, however, is Ukely to supersede 
this mode of expression : thus, " The goods are being sold;" " The houso 
18 being built;" " The work is now being picblished." 

You may now answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many kinds of participles are there? — What is the ending 
of a present participle? — What does a perfect participle denote ? 
— With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb corres- 
pond 1 — ^\^'^hat is a compound participle ? — From what word is 
the term participle derived ? — Why is this part of speech thus 
named 1 — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature 
of a verb 1 — Do all participles participate the properties of ad- 
jectives 1 — In what respect 1 — When are participles called parti 
cipial adjectives? — Give examples. — How may a present parti- 
ciple be known t — Repeat the order of parsing a participle. — 
What Rule apphes in parsing a. present participle? — What Rule 



OF ADVERBS. R3 

in parsing a participial adjective ? — Do participles vary in their 
terminations in order to agree v/ith their subject or actor? — 
What Rule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, gov- 
erned by a participle ] — Do participles ever become nouns 1 — 
Give examples. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPfflCAL NOTES. 

How arfe participles formed ? — ^Wliat does the imperfect part, express 7-^ 
What do perfect participles denote? 



LECTURE VI. 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense 
of a verby a participle^ an adjective, or another 
adverb. 

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a noun. It qualifies any 
of tne four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others. 

To modify or qualify, you know, means to produce some 
change. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt^s style excels 
Irving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verb excels ex- 
presses the affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style excels not 
Irving's, the assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that 
thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verb excels ? You 
perceive that it is the little word not. This word has power to 
reverse the meaning of the sentence. JVb/, then, is a modifier, 
qualifier, or negative adverb. 

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or parti- 
ciple, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend 
on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its uub- 
Ume purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identilied with these, it 
may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, through suc- 
cessive generations, steadily to progress m the former, will not be neglectful 
of the cultivation and rehnement of the latter. The truth of this remark is 
illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English lan- 
guage as their medium for the ti-ansmission of thought. Among its refine- 
ments maybe ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been 
80 modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, 
conjunctions, and prepositions : for I presume it will be readily concededj 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respect 
Ing it. In the phrases. The man rides gracefully , aiukivardly, 
badly, swiftly, slowly, &c. ; or, I saw the man riding swiftly, slow- 
ly, leisurely, very fast, &c., you perceive that the words g-race/k/- 
ly, awkwardly, very fast, &c. are adverbs, qualifying the verb 
rides, or the participle riding, because they express the manner 
in which the action denoted by the verb and participle, is done. 

In the phrases, The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, frequent- 
ly, often, sometimes, never ; or. The man rode yesterday, hereto- 
fore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now ; or. The 
man will ride soon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, 
to-day, hereafter, you perceive that all these words in italicks, are 
adverbs, qualifying the meaning of the verb rides, because they 
express the time of the action denoted by the verb. 

Again, if I say, The man lives here, near by, yonder, remote, 
far off, somewhere, noiuhere, evei^ywhere, &c., the words in 
italicks are adverbs of place, because they tell Avhere he lives. 

Adverbs likewise quaUfy adjectives, and sometimes other ad 
verbs ; as, more wise, most wise ; or more wisehj, most wisely 
When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally 
expresses the degree of comparison ; for adverbs, like adjectives, 
have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful 
artist, you know the adjective skilful is in the positive degree ; 
but, by placing the adverb more before the adjective, we increase 
the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the compara- 
tive ; as, A more skilful artist : and most renders it superlative ; 
as, A most skilful artist. And if we place more and most before 
other adverbs, the effect is the same ; as, skilfully, more skilfully, 
most skilfullv. 

' COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Positive, 
soon, 
often, 
much, 
well, 
far, 

wisely, 
justly, 
justly. 



Comparative, 

sooner, 

oftener, 


Superlative, 

soonest. 

oftenest. 


more, 
better, 
farther. 


most. 

best 

farthest. 


more wisely, 
more justly, 
less justly. 


most wisely 
most justly, 
least justly. 



that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is tlv 
offspring of refinement. That an rnimense amount of time and breath la 
saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demon 
Btrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that > 
daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit. 

Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two n 



«P ADVERBS. 85 

You win generally know an adverb at sight ; but sometimes 
you will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any othei 
part of speech m the English language. I will, therefore, give 
you some mgiis which will assist you a little. 

Most words ending in ly are adverbs; such as, politely, grace^ 
fulhjj jiidicioiishj. Any word or short phrase that will answer to 
any one of the questions, hoiv ? how much ? luhen ? or ichere ? 
is an adverb ; as, The river flows rapidly ; He walks very 
fast ; He has gone far away ; but he will soon return ; She sings 
sweetly ; They learn none at all. How, or in what manner does 
the river flow? Rapidly. How does he walk? Very fast. 
Where has he gone ? Far aivay. When will he return ? Soon. 
How does she sing? Sweetly. How much do they learn? 
None at all. From this illustration you perceive, that, if you 
could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them 
by their answering to the questions. However, your better way 
Vvill be to distinguish adveibs by considering the oflice they per- 
form in the sentence ; or by noticing their grammatical relation, 
or their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a 
thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly important. 
Rapidly, fnst, far away, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be ad- 
verbs by their quahfying the sense of verbs. " A very good pen 
wv'iies extremely V.' ell." Well, in this sentence, is known to be 
an adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb ivrites ; extreme' 
hf, by its ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to 
qualify it ; and very is known as an adverb by its joining the ad- 
jective good. 

Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a feiv days 
ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote 
th« manner or time of the action of verbs or participles, are gene- 
rally called adverbial phrases. 

more words ; as, " He did it ^ere," for, He did it in this place ; there, for, in 
that "place ; lohere, for, in xohat 'place ; noio, for, at this time. Why means for 
\ohat reason; hoio — in xohat mind, mood, mode, or manner; exceedingly — to a 
greai degree; very — in an eminent degree; often and seldom signify many times, 
few times. 

The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified, and com- 
bined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolifiek fa- 
mily of tiiis illegitimate race, are those in ly, a contraction of Uke. Gentle- 
man-ly, means genileman-like, like a gentleman. We do not yet say, ladily, 
but lady-like. The north Britons still say, wiselike, manlike, instead of, wise- 
ly, manly. 

Qnicfc comes from gwick, the past part, of the Anglo-Saxon verb gioicciatif 
to \ivify, give Ufe. Q,uick-ly or live-ly, means, in a quick-like or life-like man- 
ner ; in the manner of a creature that has Ufe. Rapidrly — rapid-like, like a 
rapid ; a quick-ly or swift-ly running place in a stream. 

JSt-ways, contraction ef in all ways. By a slight transition, it means in. or 

8 



8G ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practi- 
cal convenience, be reduced to particular classes. 

1. OfJVumber; as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of Order ; as. First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c. 

3. Of Place; as. Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, up- 
ward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, 
whithersoever, &c. 

4. Of Time. 

Present; as, Now, to-day, &c. 

Past; as. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, 
hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. 

Futm^e; as. To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henciBforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediate- 
ly, ere long, straightway?, &c. 

Time indefinite; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 
6. Of Quantity ; as. Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 

6. Of Manner or quality ; as. Wisely, foolishly, justly, un- 
justly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the 
most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by 
adding the termination ly to an adjective or a participle, or 
by changing le into ly ; as. Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheer- 
fully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably. 

7. Of Doubt ; as, haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, 
perchance. 

8. Of Affirmation ; as. Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, 
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. Of Negation ; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, 
in no wise> &c. 

10. Of Interrogation ; as. How, why, wherefore, whither, &c. . 
and sometimes when, whence, where. 

at all times. »5/-one, contraction of aZZ-one. On-ly — one-like. Jll-so — all th* 
same (thing.) Ever — an age. For ever and ever — for ages and ages. Ever is 
not B3''nonymous with always. J^ever — ne ever. It signifies no age, no perioa 
of time. A'o, contraction of nof. wVof, a modification of no-f/ting-, no^A-mg", 
nought, naught. " He is not greater" — is greater in nought — in no thing. 
, Jldtift is the past part, adrifed, adripd, adrift; from the Saxon drifan, or ' 
adrifan, to drive, ^go, formerly written ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, is the past 
part, of the verb to go. It refers to time gone btj. .Msunder, the Saxon pasA. 
part, asundren, from the verb sondrian or asondrian, to separate, jUoft — on 
the loft, on luft, on, lyft; lyft being the Anglo-Saxon word for air or clouds, 
»^stray, the part, of straegan, to stray. .Awry, part, oiwrythan, to writhe. 
Nedds — need-is; anciently, nedes, nede is. 



ADVERBS. — PARSING 87 

11 Of Companson ; as, More, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. 

NOTES. 

1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our lan- 
guage. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with 
the adverbs of nlace, here, there, where ; as, Hereof, thereof, whereof; here- 
to, thereto, Avnereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby j herewith, tliereM'ith, 
wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, 
(i. e. where-for,) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, where- 
on, &c. 

2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verba and the letter a, used 
Instead of at, on, &c. ; as. Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat, adrift, agh>ast, ago, askance, away, asunder, astray, &c. 

You will now please to read this lecture /owr times over, and 
read slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the 
nature and character of this part of speech, you will be fre- 
quently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition. 
Now do you notice, that, in this sentence which you have just 
read, the words slowly, carefully, well, and frequently, are ad- 
verbs ? And do you again observe, that, in the question I have 
just put to you, the Words now and just are adverbs ? Exercise 
a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in reflection, are 
worth whole days occupied in careless reading. 

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, 
namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and 
Adverbs ; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all 
agreeably to the systematick order, four times over. Those 
words in italicks are adverbs. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adverb, is — an adverb, 
and why ? — \NhaX sort ? — ^what does it qualify ? — 
Rule. 

" My friend has returned again ; but his health is not very 
good." 

Again is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a 
verb — of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not pre- 
cisely defined — it qualifies the verb "has returned," according to 

To-toit, the infinitive of witan, to know. It means, to be knoion. 

Jiy or yea signifies have it, enjoy it. Yes is ay-es, have, possess, enjoy that. 
Our corrupt o-yes of the crier, is the French imperative, oyez, hear, listen. 

Straight way — by a straight way. While — loheel ; period in which some- 
thing whiles or wheels itself roimd. Till — to while. 

Per, Latin, — ^the English by. Perhaps — per haps, per chance. 

These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the atten- 
tion of the intellisent pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horud 
Tooke." 



S3 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, ttdJectiveSf and 
other adverbs. 

JVot is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- 
verb — of negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it 
changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative — and 
it qualifies the adverb ''very," agreeably to Rule 29. Adverbs 
qualify verbs, <^-c. 

Very is an adverb, a word used to quaUfy the sense of an ad- 
jective — of comparison, it compares the adjective " good," 
and quahties it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjec- 
lives, 4*0. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. 
Very few Hterary men feer become distinguished poets. The 
great Milton excels not Homer. The Roman women once, vo- 
luntarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the ©ity. 

Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The 
river Funza failing perpendicidarly, forms a vast cataract. At- 
tentive servants akoays drive horses very carefully ; negligent 
servants oflen drive horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars 
improve very fast; idle scholars learn none af a//. Friendship 
often ends in love ; but love in friendship, nzver. 

Note. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you w^ilked ? 
J^ot yet quite far enough, perhaps. J^ot, yet, far, and enough, qualify **fca,ve 
walked" understood ; ;)e)7(,ffps qualifies not; and quite qualifies /ar. The 
adrerbs always and carefully both qualify the verb "drive:" the former ex- 
presses time, -and the latter, manner. Once and voluntarily qualify the iperb 
" contributed ;" the former expresses number, and the latter, manner. The 
word their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. 
The nouns love and friendship, following in, are in the objective case, and 
governed by that preposition. 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 

When the words therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the £ke, are used 
in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs; but when tiiej ap- 
pear single, they are commonly considered conjunctions. 

The words lohen and where, and a.l others of the same nature, such as 
whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while there- 
fore, &c. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because-they partici- 
pate the naturs both of adverbs and conjunctions ; of adverbs, as they de- 
note the attributes either of time or place ; of conjunctions, as tJiey conjoin 
sentences. 

_ There are many words that are sometimes usea as adjectives, and some- 
times as adverbs ; as, " More men than women were there ; I ain more dili- - 
gent than he." In the former sentence more is evident/y an adjective, for it 
is joined to a noun to quahfy it ; in the latter it is an aaverb, because it qua- 
lifies an adjective. There arc others that are sometimes used as nouns, and 
bometimes as adverbs ; as, " to-darfs lesson is longer than yesterday's.^ 
in this example, to-day and yesterday are B0':.ns \n tne nossessive ease ; hoi 



ADVEBAS. 6d 

InphifaseB like the following, they are generally considered adverl)s of time: 
" He came [to Ms] home yesterday, and will set out again to-day." Here 
they are nouns, if we supply on before them. 

" Wheremuch [wealth, talent, or something else] is given, much [increasif 
improvement] will be required; Much money has been expended; it is much 
better to write tlian starve." In tlie first two of these examples, much is 
an adjective, because it qualifies a noun ; in the last, an adverb, because it 
qualities the adjective better. In short, you must determine to what part of 
speech a word belongs, by its sense, or by considering the manner in which 
it is associated with other words. 

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an adverb by this 
rule ; when a word qualifies a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective, but when 
it qualifies a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. 

Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns 
are understood. " He rides about ;" that is, about the town, country, or 
some-thing else. " She was near [the act or misfortune of] falling;" "But 
do not after [that time or event] lay the blame on me." " He came down [the 
ascent] from the hill ;" " They lifted him up [the g-sceni] out of the pit." 
" The angels above;" — above us— " Above these lower heavens^io us invisi- 
ble, or dimly seen." 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in 
false Syntax, y©u may answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun ? — What parts of 
speech does it qualify? — When an adverb qualifies a verb 
or participle, what does it express? — When an adverb quali- 
fies an adjective or adverb, what does it generally express ? — 
Compare some adverbs. — By what signs may an adverb be 
known ? — Give examples. — Repeat some adverbial phrases, 
-^Name the different classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of 
each class. — Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. — What 
rule do you apply in parsing an adverb ? 

aUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 
Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with ad- 
verbs of place. — Repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns. 
What part of speech are the words, therefore, consequently, &c.l — What 
words are styled adverbial conjunctions ?^-Why are they so called 1— Is 
the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb 1 
Give examples. — What is said of much? — By what rule can you distinguish 
an adjective from an adverb 'i — Do prepositions ever become adverbs'? 

aUESTlONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language 7 
Illustrate the fact. — What is said of ly, like, and quick?— How are the fol- 
lowing words composed, ahoa.ys, alone, only, also? — What is the meaning 
of ever, nmver, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry ? — Give the sig- 
nification of needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till, and per. 

Note. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical 
Notes, in this or any other Lechare, unless the teacher deem i* expedient. 

8* 



90 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 3, to Rule ^9. Adjectives are sometimes improperly 
applied as adverbs ; as, indifferent honest ; excellent well ; mi 
serable poor : — She writes elegant ; He is walking slow. 

The adjectives indifferent, excellent, and miserable, are here improperly 
used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs,, 
out such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, there- 
fore, be, " indifferently honest, excellently well, miserably poor." Elegant and 
slow are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express 
the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs, and participles, but it ia 
the office of the adverb. The constructions should be, " She writes degant- 
ly ; He is walking sloioly.^^ 

You may correct the following examples several times over, 
and explain the principles that are violated. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. 

She Beads pKoper, and writes very neat. 

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable 
poor. 

The lowering clouds are moving slow. 

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful 
not to give offence. 

Note 4, to Rule 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly 
used instead of adjectives ; as, " The tutor addressed him in 
terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." 

The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the 
action of the verb " addressed," but it denotes the quality of the noun terms 
understood ; for which reason it should be an adjective, suitable, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The man was slowly wandering about, solitarily and dis- 
tressed. 

He lived in a manner agreeably to his condition. 

The»study of Syntax should be previously to that of Punctuation. 

He introduced himself in a manner very abruptly. 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehe- 
mence of gesture. 

I saw him previously to his arrival. 



PREPOSITIONS 



91 



LECTURE VII, 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



A Preposition is a word which serves to con- 
nect words, and show the relation between them. 

The term preposition is derived from the two Latin words, pre, 
which signifies before, and pono, to place. Prepositions are so 
called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and 
pronouns which they gce'-n in the objective case. 

The principal prepositions are presented in the folllowing list, 
which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be en- 
abled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever 
you see them in composition. 





A LIST 


OF THE PREPOSITIONS, 




of 


over 


at 


after 


betwixt 


to 


under 


near 


about 


beside 


for 


through 


up 


against 


athwart 


by 


above 


down 


unto 


towards 


WitlJ 


below 


before 


across 


notwithstanding 


m 


between 


behind 


around 


out of 


into 


beneath 


off 


amidst 


instead of 


within 


from 


on upon 


throughout 


over against 


without 


beyond 


among 


underneath 


aceordnig to 



This list contains many words that are sometimes used as con- 
junctions, and sometimes as adverbs ; but when you shall have 
become acquainted with the nature of the preposition, and of the 
conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascer 
taining to which of these classes any word belongs. 

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, 
that it performs a double office in a sentence, namely, it connects 
words, and also shows a relation between them. I will first show 
you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. 
T\Tien corn is ripe — October, it is gathered — the field — men — 



PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothick noun fntm, 
beginning, source, author. "He came from (beginning) Rochester." 0/ha 
supposes to be a fragment of the Gothick and Saxon noun afora, conse- 
quence, offspring, follower. " Solomon, the son of {offspring) David." Of or 
cffy in its modern acceptation, signifies disjoined, sundered: A piece of (off) 
the loaf, is, a piece disjoined, or separated from the loaf. The fragrance of or 
<j/f the rose. 

For signifies cause. " I write /or your satisfaction ;" i. e. your satisfaction 
being the cause. By or be is the imperative byth, ©f the Saxon beon, to be. 
Withf the imperative of withan, to join ; or, when equivalent to by, of ■wy*'- 



92 ETYMOLOOr AND SYNTAX. 

who go—hill — hill— baskets,— whicn they put the ears. You 
perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion 
and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, 
and the sense will be clear. " When corn is ripe, in October, it 
is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill ivith bas- 
kets, into which they put the ears." 

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our 
language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect 
the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, 
amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, anothex 
part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. 
This will be explained in lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will 
learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is 
nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will 
show you how prepositions express a relation between words. 

The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what re- 
lation does the preposition under show ? You know that hat and 
arm are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but under 
is not the sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely the sigr* 
of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence you may 
perceive, that since the word under is the sign of the relation ex- 
isting between particular ideas, it also expresses a relation exist- 
ing between the words hat and arm, which words are the repre- 
sentatives of those ideas. 

The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the pre- 
position m shows the relation existing between hat and hand, or 
the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the othei. 
And, if I say. The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on 
shows the relation between hat and head. Again, in the. expres- 
sions, The boy threw his hat up stairs — under the bed — behind 
the table — through the window — over the house — across the 
street — mio the water — and so on, you perceive that the several 
prepositions express the different relations existing between the 

than, to be. " I will go ivith him." " I, join him, will go." In comes from 
the Gothick noun inna, the interiour of the body ; a cave or cell. Jibout, 
from boda, the first outward boundary. Among is the past part, of gamaen 
gam, to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothick substantive dauro, or the 
Teutonick thuruh. It means passage, gate, door. 

Before — be-fore, be-hind, be-loio, he-side, besides, be-neath, are formed by 
combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, hind, low, side, neath. 
^ecUh — Saxon neothan, neothe, has the same signification as nadir. Be- 
tioeen, be-twixt — be and Uvaiii. A dual preposition. Be-yond — be-passed. 
Beyond a place, means, be passed that place. 

J^'otxoithstanding — not-siand-ing-xoith, not-withstanding. "Any order to 
the contrary not- withstanding" (this order;) i. e. not effectually withstanding 
or opposing it. 



PREPOSITIONS. — PARsmo. 93 

hat and the other nouns, stairsybed, tahhj window, house, sb^ett, 
and water, 

A preposition tells where a thing is: thus, "The pear is on 
the ground, under the tree." 

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do 7iot ex- 
press an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb 
or participle does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposi- 
tion, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
relation expressed by the preposition, and not the object of an 
action. 

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the 06- 
jective case, than that which was given in a former lecture. I 
have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the 
object of an action or of a relation ; ajid, also, that there are 
tJiree parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the 
objective cas«, namely, active-transitive verbs, participles derived 
from transitive verbs, and prepositions. A noun or pronoun in 
th3 objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of 
an action and of a relation. It must be either the object of an 
action or of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remem- 
ber, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transi- 
tive verb or participle, it is the object of an action ; as, The tutor 
imtructs his pupils ; or, The tutor is instructing his pupils; but 
whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is 
the object of a relation; as, The tutor gives good instruction to 
his pupils. 

Before you proceed to parse the following examples,, please 
to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner 
previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, 
and then look off' your book and repeat them two or three times 
over in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the 
most important ideas advanced. If you Avish to proceed with 
ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the pre- 
ceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an un- 
pleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall 
have learned thus far, you will understand seven parts of speech ; 
and only three more will remain to be learned. 

K YOU havp complied with the foregoing request, you may com- 
mit the following order, and then proceed in parsing. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
Tlie order of parsing a Preposition, is — a 
preposition, and why? — what does it connect ? — 
i^hat relation does it show ? 



94 ETYMOLOOrY AND SYNTAX. 

" He saw an antelope in the wilderness J*^ 
In is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, ano 
show the relation between them — it connects the words "ante- 
lope" and "wilderness" — and shows the relation between them. 
Wilderness is a noun, the name of a place — com. the name of 
d sort or species — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — > 
third pars, spoken of — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the 
objective case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the 
oreposition " in," and governed by it, according to 
Rule 31. Prepositions govern the objective case. 
The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand 
Defore he ; Hand the paper to they. Prepositions require the 
pronoun following them to be in the objective form, position, oi 
case ; and this requisition amounts to government. Hence we 
say, " Stand before him ;" " Hand the paper to them.^^ Every 
preposition expresses a relation, and every relation must have 
an object : consequently, every preposition must be followed by 
a noun or pronoun in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon 
man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator 
pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. 
Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft re,pose. Life's 
varying schemes no more distract the labouring mind of man. 
Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt. 

Abeam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly 
pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, 
like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. 

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds 
full fast ; and ^^hosts, wandering here and there, troop home to 
church-yards. 

Love still pursues an ever devious race, 
True to the winding lineaments of grace. 

Note. — The words my and and you need not parse. The noun " meteors,** 
following the adverb "like," is in the objecuve case, and governed by wnfo 
understood, according to Note 2, under Rule 32. The noun " home" is 
governed by to understood, according to Rule 32. 

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. 

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposi- 
tion understood; as, "Give him that book*" that is, "Give that book to 
him ;" " Ortugral w^as one day wandering," &c. that is, en one day. " Mer- 
cy gives affliction a gjace ;" that is, Mercy gives a grace to affliction. See 
Note 1, under Rule 32. . 

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is 
requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be ooserved in the use of by and 
with ; as, " He walks loith a siaE by moonlight j" " He was lali^i by strate^ ■ 



1>R0N0UNS. 95 

^geni, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and 
say, " He walks by a BtSiffwith moonlight ;" "He was taken with stratagem, 
and killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions dif- 
fer from the former in signification, more than one, at first vieW; would be 
apt to imagine. 

Verbs are ot\en compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to ttphold, to 
tpi7/istand, to overlook ; and this composition gives a new meaning to the 
verb ; as, to tmdej'stand, to lyif/tdraw, to /orgive. But the preposition is 
more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an ad- 
verb ; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and 
give it a new meaning ; and in all instances, whether the preposition is 
placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb. 
It may be considered as apart of the verb. Thus, to cast means to throw , 
but to cast np an account, signifies to compute it ; therefore vp is a part of tho 
verb. The phrases, to fall on, to bear old, to give over, canvey very diflferent 
meanings from what they would if the prepositions on, out, and over, were no 
used. Verbs of this kin<l are called compound verbs. 

You may now answer the following 
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term preposition derived ? — Why fg 
it thus named ? — Repeat the list of prepositions. — Name the 
three parts of speech that govern nomis and pronouns in the 
objective case. — When is a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case, the object of an action 1 — When is it the object of a rela- 
tion ? — ^^Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. — What rulo 
do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a pre- 
position 1 — Does every preposition require an objective case 
after it 1 — Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition 
understood? — Give examples. — What is said of verbs com- 
pounded of a verb and preposition ? — Give the origin and mean- 
i? 2 of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes. 



LECTURE VIII. 

OF PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, 
and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition 
of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, 
sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or mem 
ber of a sentence. 



96 fiTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The word pronoun comes from the two Latin words, prtf, 
which means for, or instead of, and nomen, a name, or noun. 
Hence you perceive, that pronoun means for a noun, or instead 
of a noun. 

In the sentence, " The man is happy ; he^is benevolent ; he 
is useful ;" you perceive, that the word he is used instead of the, ■ 
noun man; consequently he must be a pronoun. You observe, « 
too, that, by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence, we 
avoid the repetition of the noun man, for without the pronoun, 
the sentence would be randered thus, " The man is happy ; ihts\' 
mmi is benevolent ; the man is nsefuV^ ' 

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pro- j 
nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid then ' 
repetition of nouns. Repetition means repeating or mentioning 
the same thing again. In the sentence, " I come to die for my 
country," the pronouns, /and inij, stand fov the name of the per- 
son who speaks ; but they do not avoid the repetition of that 
name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are 
used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, 
generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand ; 
but pronouns of the firsi and second person, sometimes avoid 
the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not. 

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its 
importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily compre- 
hended. If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be 
obliged to express ourselves in this manner : "A woman went 
to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of beins; 
murdered by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made 
preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked the wo- 
man for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to 
defend the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went 
to a neighbour's." 

This would be a laborious style indeed ; but, by the help of 
pronouns, we can express fne same ideas with far greater ease 
and conciseness i "A woman went to a man, and told him, 
that he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of rob- 
bers, who had made preparations for attacking him. He thank- 
ed her for her kindness, and, as he was unable to defend hirtu 
self he left his house and went to a neighbour's." 

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be 
at a loss to tell which woi'ds are pronouns ; and you will ob- 
serve, too, that they all stand for nouns. 

Pronouns are generally divided into three 
kmds, the Personal, the Adjective, and the Be- 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

lative pronouns. They are all known by the 
lists, 

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns are distinguished from 
the relative, by their denoting;' the person of the 
nouns for which they stand. There are five of 
them ; /, thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, 
We, ye or you, they. 

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, 
and case. 

Gender. Yv'hen we speak of a man, we say, he, his, him; 
when we speak ot' a woynan, we say, she, hers, her ; and when 
we speak of a thing, we say il. Hence you perceive, that gen- 
der belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example ; *' The 
general, in gratitude to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she, 
not knowing him^ declined accepting it." The pronouns his 
and him, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun ge- 
neral; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender : her and 
she personate lady ; therefore, they are feminine : and it repre- 
sents /laytrf; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This 
illu-stration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same 
gender as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates 
to the variation of the pronouns to express sex, 

^- Tjender has respect only to the third person 
Isingular of the pronoims, he, she, it. He is mas- 
culine ; she is feminine ; z7 is neuter. 

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and 
Second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their 
nouns, as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The 
first person, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, 
or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of 
the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which, and other 
circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and therefore, 
the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked 
by a distinction of gender ; but the third person, that is, the 
person or tiling spoken of, being absent, and in many respects 
unknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to 
be marked by a distinction of gender. 

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the 
first and second person, and also to the plural number of the 
third person ; but these have no peculiar form to denote their 

9 



98 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

gender ; therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with 
the nouns which they represent. 

Person. Pronouns have three persons in each 
number. 

/, is the first person --«-*.'] 

Thou^ is the second person - - • * V Singular. 

He^ she, or it, is the third person *J 

We, is the first person « «» ^ * «. ^-i 

¥e or you, is the second person- -> Plural. 

l^hey, is the third person - - « - «j 

This account of persons will be very hitelligible, when you 
leflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject o| 
any discourse : first, the person who speaks, itiay speak of him- 
self ; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he address- 
es himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person ; and 
as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken 
of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plural 
number. 

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree in 
person with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first 
person, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, 
it represents a noun ; but nouns are never of the first person, 
therefore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their 
nouns. 

Number. Pronouns, like nouns^ have two 
numbers, the singular and the plural ; as, /, thou, 
he; ive, ye or you, they. 

Case. Pronouns have three cases, the no- 
mmative, the possessive, and the objective. 

In the next place I will present to you the declension of the 
personal pronouns, which declensicr? vou must commit to me- 
mory before you proceed any farther. 

The advantages resulting from the committing of the follow 
ing declension, are so great and diversified, that you eannot be 
too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is 
sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a 
noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not 
marked by a difference in termination ; but this difficulty is 
removed in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases ar« 
alwuys known by then- termination. By studying the declen 



I 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 99 

sion you will learn, not only the cases of the pronouns, but, also, 
their genders, persons, and numbers. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
FIRST PERSON. 



tSifig. 


Plur. 


JVom, I, 


we, 


Foss, my or mine, 


our or ours. 


Obj, me. 


us. 


SRCOND PERSON 


, 


Si7lg, 


Plur. 


JSTom, thou, 


ye or you, 


Poss, thy or thine. 


your or yours, 


Obj, thee. 


you. 


THIRD PERSON. 




Mas, Sing, 


Plur, 


JVom, he. 


they. 


Poss. his, 


their or theirs. 


Obj. him. 


them: 


THIRD PERSON. 




Fe?n. Sing. 


Plur. 


JVom. she, 


they. 


Poss. her or hers, 


their or theirs. 


Obj. her. , 


them. 


THIRD PERSON. 




JVeut. Sing, 


Plur. 


•Nom, it. 


they, 



Poss, its, their or theirs, 

Obj, it. them. 

NOTES. 

1. WTien self IS added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, 
themselves, &.c. Ihey are called compound personal pronouns, and are used 
in the nominative or objectivs case, but not in the possessive. 

2. In order to avoH the disagreeab'e harshness of sound, occasioned by the 
frequent recurrence of the terminations est, edst, in the adaptation oi our 
verbs to the nominative thou, a modern innovation vi^hich substitutes you for 
tfunt, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contri 
butes ^eatly to the harmony of our coUoouial style. You was formerly re- 
ptrictsd to the plural number; but nov^^ it is employed to represent either 
a Bin»ular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that whea 



100 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains itfc original 
ftlural form ; and, therefore, the verb connected w^ith it, should always be 
plural. Inattention to this peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the 
erroneous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when it represents a 
smgular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular 
verb ; as, " When was you there ?" " How far was yaii from the parties?" Such a 
construction, however, is not supported by g-ooci usage, nor by analogy. It is aa 
manifest a solecism as to say, We am, or we is. Were it, in any case, admissi- 
ble to connect a singular verb with you, the use of to as would Still be ungram- 
matical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and third persons, 
and you is second person. Wast being second person, it would approximate 
nearer to correctness to say, you loast. We never use the singular of tlio 
present tense with you : — you art, you is ; you loalkest, you walks. Why, 
then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitoriS 
as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with this pronoun ? la 
every point of view, the construction, "When ivere you there ?" " How fur 
were you from the parties ?" is preferable to the other. 

3. The words my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are, by many, denominated 
possessive adjective pronouns ; but they always stand for nouns in tlie posses- 
sive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the persoiial pronouns. 
That principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, 
would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. 
Example : " The lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse." In this 
sentence her personates, or stands for, the noun "lady," and his represents 
" gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, 
** The lady gave the gentleman the lady''s watch for the gentleman\s horse." 
Iflady^s and gentleman's are nouns, her and his must be personal pronouns. 
The same remarks apply to my, thy, our, your, their and its. Tliis view of 
these words may be objected to by those who speculate and refine upon the 
principles of grammar until they prove their non-existence, but it is believed, 
nevertheless, to be based on sound reason and common sense. 

4. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, have, by many respectable 
grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pro- 
nouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated pronouns or nouns in 
the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, that a little atten- 
tion to the meaning and office of these words, will clearly show the impro- 
priety of both these classifications. Those who pursue the former arrange- 
ment, allege, that, in the examples, " You may imagine what kind of faith 
theirs was ; My pleasures are past ; hers and yours are to come; they ap- 
plauded his conduct, but condemned hers and yours,'''' the words theirs, hers, 
and yours, are personal pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by 
their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sen- 
tences thus, " you may imagine what kind of faith their faith was ; — her 
pleasures and your pleasures are to come ; — but condemned her conduct and 
your conduct ;" or thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the faith ol 
them was ; — the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come , — 
but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these con- 
structions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their purpose ; 
Sot, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they are resolved into 
personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the nouns which we supply: 
thus, theirs %ecomes, their faith: hers, her pleasures; and yours, your 
pleasures. Tliis evidently gives us two words instead of, and altogether dis- 
tinct from, the first; so that, in parsing, their faith, we are not, in reality, 
analyzing theirs, but two other words of which theirs is the proper representa- 
tive. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling 
these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective 
case. Witliout attempting to develop the original or intrinsick meaning ot 
<Jiese pluraUzing adjuncts, ne and s, which were, no doubt, formerly detached 



PERSONAL PKONOUNS. — FARSING. 101 

from the pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, 
it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present appHcation of these pro- 
nouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also 
the thing possessed, 'which gives them a compound character. They may, 
therefore, be properly denommated Compound Personal Pronouns ; and, 
as they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two 
other words, ana, consequently, including two cases, they should, like the 
compound relative tohat, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, r 
" You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a compound per- 
sonal pronoun, equivalent to their faith. Their is a pronoun, a word used 
instead of a noun ; personal, it personates the persons spoken of, under- 
stood ; third pers. plur. numb. &c. — and in the possessive case, antl governed 
by "faith," accoraing to Rule 12. Faith is a noun, the name of a thing ; 
&c. &c — and in the nominative case to " was," and governs it ; Rule 3. Or, 
if we render the sentence thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the 
faith of them* was," faith would be in the nominative case to " was," and 
them would be in the objective case, and governed by " of:" Rule 31. 

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be 
preferred by tliose who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, 
and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a 
noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whoso 
book ? and the answer be, mine, ours, hers, or theirs, the word book is includ- 
ed in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, tlms, mine 
book, ours book, hers book, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it 
would be giving a double answer : but when the c^uestion is answered by a 
noun m the possessive case, the word book is not mcluded, but implied ; as. 
Whose book ? John's, Richard's ; that is, John's book; Richard's book. 

This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds what, 
tohoever, and others, is respectfully submitted to the publick ; believing, that 
those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. 
Should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank 
them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interroga^ 
tory: If w^f, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not 
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs ? 

5. J^ine and thiyie, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn style, before 
a word beginning with a vowel or silent h ; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities ;" 
and when thus used, they are not compound. His alM'ays has the same 
form, whether simple or compound ; as, " Give John his book ; That desk ia 
his.'" Her, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case ; as, Take 
her hat : when standing alone, it is in the objective case ; as, Give the hat 
to her. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and com 
mitted the declension of the personal pronouns, you may commit 
the following 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing a Personal Pronoun, 

♦ In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our, 
your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demonstrate 
the correctness of that assertion, than this latter construction of the worn 
theirs ? All admit, that, in the construction, " The taith o/f/tem," the word 
them is a personal pronoun : and for this conclusive reason : — it represents 
a noun understood. What, then, is their, in the phrase, " their faith ?" Is it 
not oDvious, that, if them is a personal pronoun, their must be, also 7 for ^0 
latter represents the same noun as the former. 

9* 



K)2 ETYMOIiOGY AND SYNTAX. 

is — a pronoun, and why ? — personal, and v/hy ? — 
person, and why? — gender and number, and 
why? — Rule: case, and why ?— Rule. — De 
dine it. 

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing pei- 
sonal pronouns in their different persons ; therefore, if you wish 
ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention 
to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now no- 
tice, particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one 
rule in parsing /and my, and two in parsing i/iow, him, and they. 
" / saw my friend." 

/ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
represents the person speaking, understood — first person, it de- 
notes the speaker — singular number, it implies but one — and in 
the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the 
verb " saw," and governs it, agreeably to Rule 3. The nom. 
case gov. the verb. Declined — first pers. sing. num. nom. I^ 
poss. my or mine, obj. mo. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, 
obj. us. 

JV[y is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — peisonal, 
it personates the person speaking, understood — first pers. it de- 
notes the speaker — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the 
posses-sive case, it denotes possession ; it is governed by the 
noun "friend," agreeably to Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses. Declin 
ed — first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur 
nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. 

"Young man, thou hast deserted thy companion, and left /wm 
in distress." 

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates "man" — second person, it represents the person 
spoken to — mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun " man" 
is for which it stands, according to 

Rule 13. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand in gender and number. 

Thou is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject 
of the verb "hast deserted/' and governs it agreeably to Rule 
3. Tlie nom. case gov. the verb. Declined — sec. pers. sing, 
num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ys 
or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you. 

Him is g, pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates " companion" — third pers. it represents the per- 
son spoken of— mas. gend. sing. numb, because the noua 



PEr^SONAL PRONOUNS. — PARSING. 103 

companion" is for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers.pro. ^c. 
(Repeat the Rule.) — Him is in the objective case, the object of 
the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "hast left," 
and gov. by it : Rule 20. Active-trans, verbs gov. the ohj. case. 
Declined — third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. 
his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. 
them. 

*' Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat ; 
but they dreaded the force of my arm." 

TViey is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — person- 
al, it represents " chiefs" — tliird pers. it denotes the persons 
spoken of — mas. gend. plur. num. because the noun " chiefs" 
IS for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers. Pron. SfC. (Repeat 
the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it represents the actors and 
subject of the verb " dreaded," and governs it : Rule 3. The 
nom. case, gov. the •ye/6. Declined — third pers. mas. gend. 
sing. numb. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom, they 
poss. their or theirs, obj. them. 

Note. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (ex- 
«;epting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are under- 
stoi>d ; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But 
when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and hvo Rules. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. 
My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We im- 
prove ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest 
many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy 
work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, 
you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove 
his horses too far into the water, and, in so domg, he drowned 
them. 

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale ap- 
peared before us ; its winding stream murmured through the 
grove. The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks with 
their glittering spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. 
Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in the 
west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt 
them with his hands : joy brightened his thoughts. 

Note. Horace, Charles, and ladies, are of the second person, and nom. 
case independent : see Rcle 5, and Note. The first ijou is used in the nom. 
poss. and obj. case.— It represents Charles, therefore it is singular in sense, 
although plural in form. In the next example, ym personifies ladies, there- 
fore it 13 plural. Given is a perfect participle. Ym following given, is govern- 
ed by to understood, according to Note 1, under Rule 32. Run over is a com- 
pound verb. ,3nd is a conjunction. The first its personates vale ; the second 
its represents stream 



104 BrYMOLOOY AND STNTAX, 

You may now parse the fallowing examples three timw 
over. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

"Juliet, retain her paper, and present yours,^^ 
Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both 
the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your 
paper. Your is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
personal, it personates *' Juliet" — second person, it represents 
the person spoken to — ^fem. gender, sing, number, (singular in 
sense, hut plural in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which 
it stands : Rule 13. Pers. pron. t^-c. — your is m the possessive 
case, it denotes possession, and is governed by " paper," ac- 
cording to Rule 12. A noun or pron. ^c. (Repeat the Rule, 
and decline the pronoun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a 
thing — common, the name of a sort of things — neuter gender, it 
denotes a thing without sex — third person, spoken of — sing, 
number, it implies but one — and in the obj. case, it is the object 
of the action expressed by the transitive verb " present," and 
governed by it : Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs, govern the 
obj. case. 

Note. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper, any 
more than it means your hook^ your house, your any thing, let it be borne in 
mind, that pronouns have no definite meaning, hke other words ; but their 
foirticular signification is always determined by the nouns tli^y represent. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine : hers is better than 
mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours : his 
deeds deserve reward ; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labours 
are past ; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts 
for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. 

Note. She understood, is nominative to soiled, in the- first example ; and 

the substantive part of mine, after than, is nom. to is, understood : Rule 35. 

The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns miney 

my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouns understood. 

REMARKS ON IT. 

For the want cf a proper knowledge of this little pronoun it, many gram- 
raa.rians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account 
for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It is in great 
demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony ; 
either in the nominative or objective case ; either to represent one person or 
thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the mascuUne, feminmej 
or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, 
a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass. 

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all its mys- 
tery. It, formerly written hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past participle of 
the Moeso-Gothick verb hailan. It means, the said, and, therefore, hke its 
jiear relative that, meaning, the assumed, originally had no respect, in its ap« 
plication, to number, person, or gender. *' It is a wholesome law j" i. e. (m 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 105 

Snid (law) is a wholesome law ; or, that (law) is a wholesome law ; — tht a»- 
Moned (law) is a wholesome law. " It is the man ; I believe it to be them :" 
— fAc said (man) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I believe the said (per- 
sons) to hv tliem; I believe that persons (according to the ancient applica- 
tion of that) to be them. " It happened on a summer's day, that many people 
were assembled," kc, — Many people were assembled: if, that, or the said 
(tact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. 

It J according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to 
a noun undersltood after it, but is considered a substritute. ' How is if with 
you V" tlsnt is, How is your state or condition ?" " It rains ; It freezes ; It is 
u hard winter;" — -The rai?i rains; The frost frosts or freezes ; The said (win- 
ter) is a hard winter. " It is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in 
uniriterrupted love to the end of ^their days." What is dehghtful ? To see 
broUiers and sisters living in uninteiiiipted love to the end of their days. It, this 
thing, is delightful. It, then, stands for all that part of the sentence express- 
ed in italicks ; and the sentence will admit of the following construction ; 
" To see brothers Uving in uninterrupted love to the end of their days, is de- 
lightful" s F 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
Adjective Pronouns, Pronominal Adjec- 
tives, or, more properly, Specifying Adjec- 
tives, are a kind of adjectives wiiich point out 
nouns by some distinct specification. 

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in tlieir cha 
racter. The former stand for nouns, and never belong to them ; 
the latter belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, 
such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist. Each^ 
every, either, this, that, some, other, and the residue, are pur© 
adjectives. 

Those specifying adjectives commonly called' 
Adjective Pronouns, may be divided into three 
sorts ; the distributive, the demonstrative, and the 
rjidefriite. They are all known by the lists. 

1. The distributive adjectives are those that 
denote the persons or things that make up a 
number, each taken separately and singly. List: 
each, every, either, and sometimes neither; as, 
" Each of ids brothers is in a favourable situa- 
tion;" '' Every mdJimust account for himself;" 
*' AVither of them is industrious." 

These distributives are words which are introduced into lan- 
guage in its refined state, in order to express the nicest shades 
and colours of thought. " Man must account for himself;*' 
^'Mankind must account for thvimsclves ," " All men must ac- 



106 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

count for themselves;" " All men, women, and children^ muj>t 
account for themselves ;" " Every man must account for him- 
self." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or 
truth. But the last, instead of presenting the whole human 
family for the mind to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiai 
force of every, distributes them, and presents each separately 
and singly ; and whatever is affirmed of one individual, the 
mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race. 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of tho 
two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them 
all taken separately. 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies the 
one or the other. " Either of the three, ''^ is an improper expression. It should 
be, " any of the three." 

JsTeither imports not either ; that is, not one nor the other ; as, " J^either 
of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more than two, none 
should be used instead o£ neither ; as, " JSTone of my friends was there." 

II. The demonstrative are those which prer 
cisely point out the subject to which they relate. 
List : this and that, and their plurals, these and 
those, and former and latter; as, " This is true 
charity ; that is only its image." 

There is but a shght shade of difference in the meaning aad 
appUcation of the and that, "When reference is made to a par- 
ticular book, we say, " Take the book ;" but when we wish to 
oe very pointed and precise, we say, " Take that book ;" or, if 
it be near by, " Take this book." You perceive, then, that 
these demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, 
and a little more. 

This and these refer to the nearest persons or thmgs, that and those to the i 
most distant ; as, " These goods are superiour to those." This and these indi- 
cate the latter, or last mentioned ; that and those, the former, or first men- 
tioned ; as, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; thai tends to C£cite 
pride, this, discontent." 

" Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 
" Those call it pleasure, and contentment, these.''* 

They, those. As it is the office of the personal they to represent a nouni 
previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight departure 
from analogy in the following application of it : " They who seek after Wis- 
dom, are sure to find her : They that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." 
This usage, however, is well established, and they, in such constructions, is 
generally employed in preference to those. 

III. The indefiniie are those which express 
their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. 
List : some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same^ 
mother^ none. Of these, one and other are de= 



ADJFCTIVR PRONOUNS.*— PARSING. 107 

clined like nouns. Another is declined, but wants 
the plural. 

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the 
meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight 
shade of difference in meaning, we sa/. Give me a paper, one 
paper, amj paper, some paper, and so on. Though these words 
restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to o. 'particular 
object. We therefore call them indefinite. 

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to notins under- 
stood, in wliich situation they should be parsed accordingly ; as, "You may 
take either; He is pleased with this book, but dislikes that (book;) ^U (men) 
have sinned, but soine (men) have repented." 

The words one, other, and none, are used in 
both numbers ; and Avhen they stand for nouns, 
they are not adjectives, but indefmite pronouns ; 
as, " The great ones of the world have their fail- 
ings ;" " Some men increase in wealth, while 
others decrease ;" " J^one escape." 

The word " ones," in the preceding example, does not be- 
long to a noun understood. If it did, we could supply the 
noun. The meaning is not " the great one men, nor ones 
men," therefore one is not an adjective pronoun ; but the mean- 
ing is, " The gi-eat men of the world," therefore ones is a pro 
noun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun men under 
stood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The 
word others, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, 
equivalent to other men ; and should be parsed like mine, thine, 
SfC. See Note, 4th page. 

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some exam- 
ples for you to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, 
you should be at a loss for definitions and rules, please to refer 
to the compendium. But before you proceed, you may commit 
the following 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adjective Prokoun, 
is — an adjective pronoun, and why? — distribu- 
tive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why ? — to 
what noun does it belong, or with what does it 
agree ? — Rule. 

" One man instructs many others^ 
One, is an adi<^ctive pronoun, '^r "DPfiA/inor q^iooft^^ jf ct-o^i 



10§ ETYMOLOGY AND iVNl.iX. 

fieally points out a noun — indefinite, it expresses its subject m 
an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to the noun "man," 
according to 

Rule 19. Adjective pronouns belong to notms, expressed m 
understood. 

Others is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective 
pronoun and a noun, and is equivalent to other men. Other 
is an adjective pronoun, it is used specifically to describe ita 
noun — indefinite, it expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, 
and belongs to men : Rule 19. (Repeat the rule,) JSfen is a 
noun, a name denoting persons — common, &c. (parse it in full ;) 
and in the objective case, it is the object of the action expressed 
by the transitive verb " instructs," and gov. by it : Rule 20. 
Active-transitive verbs, <^c. 

" Those books are mine." 

Those is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is re- 
ferred to — demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to 
which it relates — and agrees with the noun " books" in the 
plural number, according to Note 1, under Rule 19. Adjective 
pronouns must agree in number with their nouns. 

JVline is a compound personal pronoun, including both the 
possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to mij 
books. JMy is a pron. a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it stands for the name of the person speaking — first person, it 
denotes the speaker — sing, number, it implies but one — and in 
the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is gov. by *' books," 
according to Rule 12. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pro- 
noun.) Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, &c. 
(parse it in full ;)- — and in the nominative case after " are,** ac- 
cording to Rule 21« The verb to be admits the same case after 
it as before it. 

EXERCISES IN PARSIN-G. 

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps 
a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. 
That book belongs to the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men 
labour, others labour not ; the former increase in wealth, the 
latter decrease. The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the 
young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of those 
poor wretches complain of their miserable lot. 

Note. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, Note 2, undei 
Rule 19, sliould be applied. 

TIT. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in ^- | 

■^ral, to some word or phrase going before, which I 



J^ELATIVE PHONOUNS 109 

is called the antecedent. They are tvHo, ivhicfii 
and thai. 

The word antecedent, comes from the two Latin words, ani^, 
hcforc, and ccdo, to go^ Hence you perceive, that antecedent 
means going befbi-e ; thus, *' The man is happy ivho lives virtu<- 
oiisly; This is the lady who relieved my wants; Thomvlfb 
Invest wisdom, &c. tVe xcho speak from experience," &c. 
The i-elativc who, in these sentences, relates to the severDl 
words, ma7i, lady, thou, and ice, which words, yon observe, conie 
hcforc the relatival tiiey'tifCj' tbGrefSre, properly called ante- 
cedents. -~ ' " .■■-'/:■ f-'.^^'. ■ v.- •'-,-'^-'»- ■ ---^^ .^; 
• The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or 
tmmber, like a personal pronoun. When we use a personal 
pronoun, in speaking of a man, we say he, and of a woman-, 
she ; in spcalcing of one person or thing, we use a singular 
nwDnoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on ; but there is 
no such variation of the relative. Who, in the first of the pre- 
ceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. geiid- 
♦hird pers. sing. ; in iaQ second, the antecedent is of the f6n\ 
gend. ; in the third, it is of the second pers. ; and in the fourtSj 
it is of the first pers. plur. num. ; and, yet, the relative is in tfio 
fame form in each example. Hence you perceive, that the re 
iative has no peculiar /orm to denote its gend. pers. and numb. 
but it ahva;.^ agrees v/itb its antecedent in sense. Thus, when 
I say. The 7na7i who writes, ivho js masculine gend. and sing. ; 
but when I say, The ladies who WTite, who is feminine, and 
pKiral. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and nurab. ©ftlie 
^^ilative, yen must always look at its antecedent. 

Who, Which, and That. 

Who is applied to persons, tvhich to things and 
brutes ; as, " He is a friend who is faithful in a^ 
versity ; The bird ivhich sung so sweetly, is 
flown ; This is the tree which produces no fruit." 

That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
100 frequent repetition of toho and which. It is 
apphed both to persons and things > as, " He thdt 
acts wisely, deserves praise ; Modesty is a quality 
fhat highly adorns a woman." 

N0TE9. ^ 

^. Who should never be applied to animals. The following applicaiKm xjlfjt 
rroneous: — " He is like a beasi of prey, at?A*c!e£:t»o^Jl*>wj\TiotJt pit^V* ' It 
' yilri be, that cfectrovi?,&'c. 



140- ii:rYMOLOGY AN1> SYNTAX. 

e. WIuj shoiildL not be applied to children. It is incorred ko say; "TJitf' 
child whom we have just seen," &c. It shouJtd be, " The chil< that we havw 
jjistseen." 

3. Whiih may be applied to persons when we wish to distin;nxish one per- 
son of two, or a particular person among a number of others ; as, '* Which 
ofthetwo? fTAic/iofthemishe?" 

4. Thaty in preference to who or which, is applied to persfTis whon they 
ate qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by the pronominaJ 
adjective same;, as, " Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one of the grtatesi 
madmen fAat the world ever saw ; — He is the same man that we saw before." 

5. That is^ employed after the interrogative to/to, in cases like the foUow- 
mg ; '* Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus?" 

When the word ever or soever is annexed to a 
relative pronoun, the combination is called a com- 
pound pronoun ; as, whoever or whosoever, which- 
ever or lohichsoever, ivhatever or lohatsoever, 

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS , 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

I^pm* who, Poss. whose, Ohj, v/hom. 

" whoever?', " whosever, " whomever. 

" whosoever, " whosesoever, *' whomsoever- 

Which and thai are mdeclinable, except that whose is some- 
times used as the possessive case of lohich ; as, " Is there any 
other doctrine lohose followers are punished ;" that is, the fol- 
io wers of which are punished. The use of this license has ob- 
tained among our best writers ; but the construction is not to 
be recommended, for it is a departure from a piam pnnciple di 
grammar, namely, who, whose^ whom, in their appHeations, 
should be confined to rational beings. 

That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc- 
tion, depending on the office wMcb it performs in the sentence. 

That is a relative only \^hen it can be changed to who or which 
without destroying the sense ; as, " They that (who) reprove us, 
may be our best friends; From every thing that (which) you see, 
derive instruction." That is a demonstrative adjective, when it 
belongs to, or. points out, some particular noun, either express 
ed or implied ; "S; "^ Return that book ; That belongs to me ; 
^iyeme thutJ' ■ •'' »? neither a relative nor an adjec- 

th^ pronoun, it is t is, " Take care that every day 

^■' ' ' ' ->^— l-y^;^ ■ •). ...^ :.,. /J-:,, last Sentence, can- 

' - i?Ktnr)'(n^ the sense. 

'■. - i.Kv'p pronoun * neithe--- does i 

,■ - "' H'hi<''h ieasoii vou'knaw it :.. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill 

n'you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the woM 
^laf, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a rela- 
tive or an adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; 
and whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is <•* 
conjunction. 

Some WTiters are apt to make too free a use of this word, i 
vill give you one example of affronted that, which may serve ae 
a caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that 
that that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gen- 
lleiipan requested her to analyze. This sentence, though ren- 
dered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical. 
The fii^j5fma/ »«• % noun ; the second, a conjunction ; the third, 
an adjective pr. noun ; the fourth, a noun ; the fifth, a relative 
pronoun ; the sixth, an adjective pronoun ; the seventh, a noun : 
the eighth, a relative pronoun he ninth, an adjective pronoun. 
The meaning of the senten; c will be more obvious, if rendered 
thus ; The *utor said, .n speakmg of 3t,» «vord that, that that that 
\chich that lady parsed, ^vas not the tliat ichich that gentleman 
requested ner to analyze. 

WHAT. 

What is generally a compound relative, includ • 
mg both the antecedent and the relative, and is 
equivalent to that tvhich; as, "This is what % 
wanted;" that is, that ivhichl or, (he thing which }, 
wanted. 

What is compounded oi which that. These words have l)een 
contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography ^jf 
both being still retamed : what — wh\ich — tyial ; {ivhich-that,'\ 
Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qua, qua ika, 
iptHha, qttlhat, quhat, hivat, and finally what. 

What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an 
interjection. When it is equivalent to that which, the thing which, 
or those ihins^s ivhich, it is a compound relative, because it in- 
eludes both the antecedent and the relative ; as, " I will try 
what (that which) can be found in female delicacy ; What you 
recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of yourpast 
life ;" that is, those thinscs which you recollect, &c. 

When-R'Aa< is a compound relative, you must always parse it, 
as two words ; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a 
noun, and give it a case : the relative part you may analyze liJte 
uny other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of tbe 
preceding examples, that, the antecedent part o^what, is in the 
obi. case, ffpvemed by the verb -* will ivy y^\Avhiehj%he rellttiYe 



xi^ ETi'ilOLGGY AMD SYNTAX. 

part, is in the tiom. case to " can bo foand." " I have fieard 
rifhai (i. e. that whichj or the thmg which) has been alleged." 

Whoever aiid whosoever are also compound relatives, and 
vshould be parsed like the compound what; as, " Whoever takes 
that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence 
whoever is equivalent to /ic Wio, or, the man who ; thus, ^^ He 
^ha takes that oath, is bound," &c. 

Who, lohichf and ivhat, when used in asking questions, are 
called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative 
kind ; as, *' Who is he 1 Which is the person 1 What, are you 
doing?" 

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent ; but they relat<> 
t6 the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, f(>.- 
their subsequent ; as, " Whom did you see 2 The preceptor. Whah\ 
have you done ? JSTothino-.'' Antecedent and subsequent ar-t 
opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means 
preceding, or going before ; and subsequent means folio v/ing^ 
or coming afler. What, v/hen used as an inten-ogatiYe,is never- 
compound. 

What, which, and that, when joined to nouns, are specifying 
adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in v/hich situation they havoi 
no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns »>f the demon- 
sti'ative or indefinite kind ; as, ^^JJnio tvhich promise our twelve' 
tribes hope to come ;" " What misery the vicious endure! 
What ha.vock hast thou made, foul monster, sin !" 

What and which, when joined to nouns in asking questions, 
Ure denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives ; as, 
" What man is that ? ffliich road did he take T" 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, which, 'whichever ^ and lohich 
soever, in constructions like the follov/ing, are compound pro- 
nouns, but not compound relatives ; as, '' In ivhat characte 
iJutler was admitted, is unknown ; Give him ^0hat name yoi 
choose ; Nature's care largely endows whatever happy mai 
will deign to use her treasures ; Let him take ivhich course, orj 
whichever coMYBQ he will." These sentences may be rendered 
thus ; " That character, or, the character in which Butk- was 
admitted, is unknown; Give him that name, or, the name 
which you choose ; Nature's care endows that happy man tvhc 
will deign, &c.; Lut him take that course, or the course whicl 
he v/ill." A compound relative necessarily includes both an an-; 
tecedent and a relative. These compojuds, you will noticeJ 
do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being tl 
article the, or the adjective pronoun, that ; therefore they canJ 
not properly be denominated compound relatives. — With regarc 
fo tie word ever aaiieKedto these pronouns, it is a singular facj 



itELATIVE Pf6a:^0UNS. PARSJLNC. 413 

UUt, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is siibjoiiiedi, 
ever is entirely exchided from the sentence. 

fVhat is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, ** But ivhat ! 
is thy servant a dog, that he should do this f What ! rob us o{ 
our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons !" 

You have now come to ihe most formidable obstacle, or,if I 
may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of gram- 
matical science ; but be not diriheartened, for, if you can get 
safely^flifir this, your future course will be interrupted with only 
here dnd there a gentle elevation. It will require close appli- 
cation, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear con- 
ception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the 
compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the 
)oung leaiiicr. As this YIII. lecture is a very important one, 
(t becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five 
limes over before you proceed to commit the following order. 
Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before 
you. if you please. 

S'iSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Relative Pronouk, 
's — a pronoun, and why ? — relative, and why?* — 
gender, person, and number, and why ? — Rule • 
case, and why? — Rule. — Decline it. 

*^ This is the man whom w* saw." 
Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, 

It relates to " man" for its antecedent^-mas. gend. third pers. 

sing. num. because the antecedent " man" is with v/hich it 

agrees, according to 

Rule 14. Relative m'onoims agree with their antecedents in 

gender J person, and number. Whom is in the objective case, fh^ 

object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb 

"'- saw," and governed by it, agreeably to 

Rule 16. When a nominative comes between the relative ann 

the verb, the relative is a:overned by the following verb, or some 



Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that 
^verns it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the 
Note, and decline icho.) 

•' From what is recorded, he appears," &c. 
What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and 
the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, — 
Tfij-nor .+V ^^*fyr.r.A^.>^ TV"-^ of xvhatj •'i ■ """•>. **;". • -"v> - ^ » 

10* 



i 



ii4 ETVMOi.06Y AiS'D SYriTAK. 

thing — com. the name of a species—neutei* gender, it has ric> 
ffex— third person, spoken of— sing, numher, it implies but one — 
and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by 
the prep, "from," and gov. by it: Pi-ule 31. (Repeat the 
Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) Wliicky the rela- 
tive pcU't of ivhat, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun- - 
relative, it relates to '•' thing" for its antecedent — neut, gender, 
third person, sing, number, because the antecedent " thing" i:< 
with which it agrees, according to Rule 14. Rel. pron, &c. 
Which is in the nom. case to the verb " is recorded," agreeably to ; 
Rule 15. The relative is the noininative case to the verb, , 
wft.en no nominative comes between it and the verb. ,^ 

" FF/iciHiave you learned 1 Nothing." J 

What is a pron. a word used, &c. — relative of the inlerroga ] 
tive kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers to ' 
the word " nothing" for its subsequent, according to 

Rule IT. When the rel. prou. is of the inlerrog. kind, it re ; 
fers to the uwrd or phrase cordaining the ansiver to the question^ \ 
^or its subsequent, which subsequent nmst agree i^i case with tha 
interrogative. What is of the neut. geo. third per. sing, because ^ 
, tile subsequent " nothing" is with which it agrees ; Rule 14. k 
liel. pron. agree, &c. — It is in the objective case, the object of 
the action, of the active-transitive verb " have learned," and 
gov. by it, agreeably to Rule 16. fVh.eii a nom. &c. See 
Note 1, under the Rule. 

Note 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogaliv': 
■wb^ij the ansvv'-or to the question is not expressed. 

WHO. rVIIICH, WHAT. 

Truth and simplicit;/ are twin sisters, and generally go hand in 
hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is 
in accordance v/illi the usual method of treating them ; but if the- 
were unfolded according to their true character, they would br 
found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labour and '3er- 
plexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved. 

Of the words called '' relatives," ivho, only, is a pronoun; and 
this is strictly pci'SG?ifil ; more so, indeed, if we except /and ivc^ 
than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted : 
to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. 
i, thou, he, she, if, vje, you, and they, relate to antecedents, r.s 
well as who. Which, that, and lukat, are always adjective,. 
They never stand for, but always belong to, nouns, either er. 
pressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjective ^. 
a^fid connecJ, sentences. 

Whv supplies the place. of whicfr or tvhafy and its pei'son^- 



liKLAiiVE VI10N0UN3. rAilSlNG. 115 

noun. H'Viacame? i.e. what man., xohal woman ^ivlial person; 
— which man, woman, or person, came 1 " They heard ivhat J 
said" — they lieard that (thing) which (thhig) I said. " Take 
what (or whicksvcr) course you please ;" — take that course 
\Dhich (course) yon please to take. " fVhat have you done 1*' 
'. e. what </iruf>', act, or deed have you done? *' Which thing 
I also did at Jerusalem." " Which will you take?' — ichich 
hook, hat, or something else? " This is the tree which (ti-ec) 
produces no fruit." *' He thai (man, or which man) acts wise- 
ly, des'erves praise." 

They who prefer this method of treating the " relatives," are 
at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The man who instructs you, labours faithfully. The hey 
v/hom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occu- 
py, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns 
a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. 
This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what he 
says. He speaks v^hat he knows, Yfhatcver purifies the 
heart, also fortifies it. What doest* thou ? Nothing. What 
book have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. 
Who does that work ? Henry. Whom seest thou ? To whom 
gave you the present ? Which pen did he tal'.e ? Whom ye 
ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he 
said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your 
taste. Eiiza,take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever 
lives to see this republick forsake her moral and literary institu- 
tions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Yvliosoever, there- 
fore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God. 

NOTE. The nominative case is freqnerxtly placed after the verb, and tjic 
objective case, before the verb that governs it. Whom, in everj' sentence ex- 
cept one, house, modeaty^ book, hat, pen, him, the third ivhat and which, the re- 
lative part of the first tv:o xfhais, arc all in the objective case, and governed 
by the several verbs that follow thein. See F.ule 16, and Note 1. Tree is 
nom. after is, according to Rule 21. Thing, the antecedent part o? whatever, 
is nom. to "fortifies ;" which, the relative part, is nom. to "purifies." JVo- 
thing is governed by do, and pcem, by have, understood. Henry is nomma- 
Hve to does, understood. Whose and John's are governed according to Rule 
12. /, thou, 1J0U, him, &c. represent nonns understood. Him, in the last sen- 
tence but five, is governed by declare, and / is nominative to declare. George 
riui Eliza are in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "Whatever 
science," &.c. is equivalent to, that science lohich suits your tasto ; — " which" 
#ver pattern ;" i. e. that pattern ichich pleases you best. Whoever is a com- 

* The second person singular of do, when used as a principal verb, is 
spelled with an e ; thus, "What thou doest, do quickly ;" but when employ 
ed 03 an aiL\iharv, the e shtr-ild be omitted ; as, " Dost thoii not behold a vock 
Mi'th it? h^ad erf fieath f " 



]f>6 ETYMUILOGY AND SLi'^SAX: 

pound relative; /te, the antecedent part, is no^iiinative to ^ will behotd'.* 
Take agrees with ym understood. Forsake is m the infinitive mood after 
*'see:" Rule 25. 

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sen 
tence, for its antecedent : as, " We are required to fear God and keep his. 
xjommandments, lohich is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty 
of man ? " To fear God and keep his commandments :" therefore, this phrase 
is the antecedent to which. 

The conjunction as, when it follows mch^ many, or same, is frequently de- 
nominated a relative pronoun ; as, " I am pleased with such as have a refined 
taste ;" that is, with those toho, or them who have, &c. " Let such as presume 
to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" that is, Let those, or thejn 
who presume, &.c. **^s many as were ordained to eternal life, believed ;" thatt 
is, they, those, or all loho were ordained, believed. *' He exhibited the same 
testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion ;" that is, thosi testimo- 
nials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the 
ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be fomid to be a 
conjunction ; thus, " I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are ivho 
iiave a refined taste ; Let such persons, as those persons are tvho presume," &c 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term pronoun derived ? Do pro- 
nouns always avoid the repetition of nouns 1 — Name the tliree 
kinds of pronouns. — What distinguishes the personal from the 
relative pronouns ? — How many personal pronouns are thrre ? 
— Repeat them. — What belong to pronouns ? — Is gender ap- 
plied to all the personal pronouns ? — To which of them is it 
applied 1 — Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar 
termination to denote their gender? — How many persons have 
pronouns ? — Speak them in their different persons. — How ma- 
ny numbers have pronouns 1 — How many cases 1 — What are 
they? — Decline all the personal pronouns. — When self is added 
to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are 
they used ? — When is tjou singular in sense ? — Is it ever singu- 
lar in form ? — Why are the words, my, thy, his, her, our, your, 
their, called personal pronouns 1 — Why are the words, mine, 
thine, his, hers, ours, ijovrs, theirs, denominated compound pers 
pron.? — How do you parse these compounds? — What is said 
:>f others ? — Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun. — 
What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, 
and in the nom. case ? — What Rule when the pronoun is in the 
possessive case ? — What Rules apply in parsnig personal pro- 
nouns of the second and third person? — What Rules in parsing 
the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &c.? — What is said of the 
pronoun it ? 

What are adjective pronouns ? — Name the three kinds. 
— ^What does each relate to ? — To what does eveynj relate ? 
— To v/hat does either relate ?— What cbes neither imporfV 



I'ftOSOUliS. t'AT.Si: SVMTAK. 117 

1 o wiiat do this and these refer ? — Give examples. — To what 
do that and those refer? — Give examples. — Repeat all the ad- 
jective pronouns. ^\Tien adj. pronouns belong to nouns under- 
stood, how arc they parsed 1 — When they stand for, or represent 
nouns, what are they called? — Give examples. — Repeat the 
order of parsing an adj. pronoun. — What Rule do you apply in 
parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns? — What Notes, in 
jjarsing the distributives and demonstratives ? 

What are relative pronouns ? — Repeat them. — From what 
words is^-tholerm antecedent derived ? — What does antecedent 
mean? — A.re relatives varied on account of gender, person, or 
number ? — To what are tvho and ir/iic/t applied ? — To what is 
ikat applied ? — Should who ever be applied to irrational beings 
or children ? — In what instances may which be applied to per- 
sons ? — Decline the rel. pronouns. — Can ivhich and that be de- 
clined? — Is that e\ev used as three parts of speech? — Give 
examples. — What part of speech is the word tvhat ? — Is what 
ovei used as three kinds of a pronoun? — Give examples. — What 
is ssid of whoever? — What words are used as interrogative 
pronouns? — Give examples. — When are the words, what, which, 
and that^ called adj. pron.? — ^When are they called inten'oga- 
tive pronominal adjectives ? — ^What is said of whatever and 
whichever? — Is what ever used as an interjection? — ^Give exam- 
ples. — Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron. — Whxii Rules do 
you apply in parsing a relative? — What Rules in pai'sing a com 
pound relative ? — What Rules in parsing an interrogative ? — • 
Does the relative ivhich ewer relate to a sentence for its ante^ 
cedent ? — When does the conjunction as become a relative ?— 
Give examples. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 1, to Rule 13. When a noun or pronoun is the sub 
jcct of a verb, it must be in the nominative case. 

Who will go ? Him and I. Hov/ does thee do ? Is thee well? 

" Him and I j" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of the 
verb tcill go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, Ae, 
according to the above Note. (Repeat the Note.) Him and /are connect- 
ed by the conjunction and, and him is in the obj. case, and I in the nom., 
tlicrefore Rule 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third 
examples, thee should be t/uni, according to the Note. The verbs, does and 
l", are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason the 
verbs should be of the second person, dost do and art, agreeably to Eulb 4, 
You may correct the other examples, four times over. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Rim and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attett- 
ijre. Him v/ho is careless, will not improve. Thev can ^vrito 



J 18 JiTYasOLQGY AliD SYNTA^J^. 

as well as me. This is the man whom was expectaH. l^r 
and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than 
him. Whom, of ail my acquaintances, do you think was there. 
Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of 
honour bestowed upon him. 

Note 2, to Rule 13. Personal pronouns being used to sup- 
ply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same 
member of the sentence with the noun which they represent. 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause 
it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble gene- 
ral who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison 
Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually 
doing evil. 

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omit* 
fed, according to Note 2. 

Note 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective 
case, should not be used instead of these and those, 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them boo^s. 
Give them men their discharge. Observe them three theee. 
Which of them two persons deserves most credit. 

In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. The use of 
the personal, them, m such constructions, presents two objectives after one 
verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be arvoided by employing 
zji ^jective pronoun in its stead. 



LECTURE IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a part of speech that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or 
more simple sentences into one compound sen- 
tence : it sometimes connects only words ; as, 
" Thou and he are happy, because you are good.*' 

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining 
sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various 4e- 
pendances of human thought. They belong to Jaaguageotity 
in its refined state. 



Tte leltn CbKJU^•CTION comes from tlie two Latin words, 
con, which signifies together, B-ndjungo, to join. A conjunction, 
then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Be- 
fore you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort 
of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant hy a 
sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for con- 
junctiona are chiefly used to connect sentences. 

A Sentexce is an assemblage of words form- 
ing complete sense. 

A Si3i'pi>^ Sentence contains but one subject, 

or nominative, and one verb which agrees with 

i thai nommative ; as, " Wheat grows in the field." 

Yo« perceive that this sentence contains several words besides 
the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sen- 
tence containing many parts of speech ; but, if it has only one 
nominative and one finite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infinitive 
mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many 
compound sentences. 

A Compound Sentence is composed of tvt^o or 
more simple sentences connected together ; as, 
*' Wheat grows in the field, and me?i reap it." 

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two sim 
pde sentences joined together by the word and ; which word, on 
account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If 
we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes tv^'o 
simple sentences : thus, " Wheat grovrs in the field. Men 
reap it." 

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily 
illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you 
know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, 
w^ich are closely connected with it. We generally eflTect this 
addition by means of the conjunction: thus, ''The Georgians 
cultivate rice and cotton ;" that is, " They cultivate rice, add cot- 
toa." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the 
conjunction, it v/ould bo written in two separate, simple sen- 
teaces: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate 
cotton." The conjunction, though chiofly used to connect sen- 
tences, sometimes connects only words ; hi which capacity it is 
nearly allied to th*-. prepovltion • a^, " The sun '.md (add) the 
planets c-Oi(.stitu*e th*^ .u)Iar system." In this, which is a simple 
eei^tence, and. connex.ts two ipords. 

Afewm'T- 'dimples will i'liistrfi > 



the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully 
to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and mem- 
bers of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are 
connected by conjunction? He labours harder — more success- 
fully — I do. That man is healthy — ^he is temperate. By^llinf. 
up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will 
see the importance of this sort of words : thus, He labours 
harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy 
because he is temperate. 

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the 
Copulative and the Disjunctive. 

I. The Conjunction Copulative serves to con- 
nect and continue a sentence by joining on n 
member which expresses an addition, a suppo- 
sition, or a cause; as, "Two and three are 
five; I will go if he will accompany me; Yon 
are happy because you are good." 

In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that ex- 
presses an addition ; in the second, if connects a member that 
implies a supposition or condition ; and in the third, because, con 
nects a member that expresses a cause. 

II. The Conjunction Dkju7ictwe serves to 
connect and continue a sentence by joining on 
a member that expresses opposition of meaning ; 
as, " They came with her, but they went awa}^ 
without her." 

But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, Xiot 
only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning. 

The principal conjunctions may be known by the following 
lists, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in 
these lists, are, hov/ever, frequently used as adverbs, and some- 
times as prepositions ; but if you study well the nature of all the 
different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the pa;?^ 
of speech of any word in the language. 

PHU-030PHICAL NOTES. 

On scientifiek principles, our coimectives, commonly denominated preposJ- 
Hons and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between 
them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and 
Pome prepositions connect sentences. They are derived frofn nouns and 
' crbs ; and th« time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not 
yerform the office of connectives. 

-' ? ivjph yon to belreve- that 1 'vv'&M not Ti«illnlly hurt a f!'^*.'* Hct^, In tlm 



CONJUNCTIONS. 121 

1.ISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative, And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 
unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, ne- 
vertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunc- 
tions, so /th*ij. in the subsequent member of the sentence, the 
latter answersto the former ; as, 

I. Though — yet or nevertheless ; as, ^^ Tlioughhe was rich? 
yet for our sakes lie became poor." 

a. Whether — or; as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot 
lell." It is improper to say, " Whether he will go or wo." 

3. Either — or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it my- 
self." 

4. JVeither — nor ; as, " JVcither thou nm' I can comprehcHd 
it." 

5. ^s — as ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 

6. As — so; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7. So — as ; as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen the© ixi 
the sanctuary. 

8. So — that; as, *'He became so vain, ^lai every one dis- 
liked him." 

NOTES. 

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form 
them into compound sentences ; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others 
are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compuond 
members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, 
as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole 
sentences, or simple members. 

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; 
as, " Blessed is the man ivho fearelh the Lord, and keepeth his ccmmand' 
ments." 

opinion of H. Tooke, our modem conjunction that, is merely a demonstrative 
adjective, in a disguised form ; and he attempts to prove it by the following 
resolution : " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe that [as- 
serfwn,"] Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter construc- 
tion, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor 
that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. 
Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former 
phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both 
the mode of employing that, and its inferential meaning, are changed. More- 
over, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a 
whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the 
latter, I assert, positively, that " I would not wilfully hurt a fly ;" whereas, 
by the former, 1 merely loish you to believe that " I would not wilfully hurt a 
fly ;" but I do not affirm that as a fact. 
' That bfiing the rast nai-t. ofthean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it g.;; 

11 



J 



122 ETYHOLOGY AND SYNTAXi 

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or 
five times over ; and then, after committing the following order^ 
voii may parse the subsequent exercises. 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing a Conjunction, is~a 
conjunction, and why ? — copulative or disjunctive, 
and why? — what does it connect ? 

" Wisdom and virtue /onn the good man's character." 

Jlnd is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences ; but in this example it connects only words — copula- 
tive, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining 
on a member which expresses an addition — it connects the words 
"wisdom and virtue." 

Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing — (You may parse it in 
full.) — Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb " form." 

Virtue is a noun, the name, &c. — (Parse it in full:) — and in 
the nom. case to the verb " form," and connected to the noun 
"wisdom" by and, according to 

Rule 33. Conjunctions connt-ct nouns and p'0]iouns in the 
same case. 

Form is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c. — of the thh'd 
person, plural, because its two nominatives, " wisdom and vir 
tue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to 

Rule 8. T^vo or more nouns in the singular number', joinea 
by cop-cilative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns 
efgrecing ivith them in the plural. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." , 

Or is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect 
s(?ntences : it sometimes connects words— disjunctive, it serveis 
not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join 
on a member which expresses opposition of meaning — it connects 
the nouns " wisdom and folly." 

a 'patlciple^ instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its prjnitiya 
character. Thus, " I would not wilfully hurt a ^y. I wish you to beli«ViJ tt-v 
assumed [fact or statement ;'\ or, the fact assumed or taken.''* 

If, (formerly written gif, give, gin,) as previously slated, is theimpwativ* 
of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. In imitation of Home Tooke, somo 
of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it 
as a verb. Thus, " I will go, if he will accompany me :" — " He will, accom- 
pany me. Grant — give that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertain' 
ing the primitive meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a reso- 
lution ; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of f/as it is ap-. 
plied in our modern, refined state of the language? I trow not. But, admit- 
ting v'f! do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences ca» be 
advantageously adopted by learners in common schools ? I presume it can- 



CONJUNCTIONS. — rAUaiNG. XZ^ 

Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, &c. — of the third 
oerson, singular number, agreeing with " wisdom or folly," ac- 
cording to 

Rule 9. Two or more 71011ns singular^ joined by disjunctive 
conjunctions, musf have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing wUh 
tliem in ike singulai-. 

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of the last 
(wo Rules presented, you will see, at once, tbjir propriety and 
importance. For example ; in the sentence, *' Orlando and 
Thomas, %/j«o 'study their lessons, make rapid progress," yoXt 
notice that the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are com- 
nected by the copulative conjunction and, therefore the verl) 
mafce, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses 
the action of both its nominatives or actors. And you observe^i 
too, that the pronoiuis ivho and their, and the noun lessons, ate 
plural, agreeing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according 
to Rule 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with tvhOf ac* 
cording to Rule 4. 

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjuitc. 
tion, and see how the sentence will read : " Orlando or Thomas*^ 
who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress." Now, you pet- 
ceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter ex:- 
pression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study 
and make rapid progress ; but it asserts, that either the one ar 
the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verx» 
makes is singular, because it expresses the action of the one or 
the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that thp 
pronouns who and his, and the noun lesson, are likewise in tho 
singular, agreeing with Orlando or I'homas, agreeably to Rule 
9. Studies is also singular, agreeing with ii'Ao, according to 
Rule 4. 



not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself coi;- 
vectly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar 
with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has 
rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of ne- 
cessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, 
10 . 'press themseivvjs in short, detached sentences, employed if a.s a verb 
wnen they used the loUowing circumlocution : " My son will reform. Give 
inarfact. I will forgive him," But in the present, improved state of our lan- 
guage, by using t/as 0. conjunction, (for I maintain that it ia one,) we express 
the same thought more briefly ; and our modern mode of expression has, too, 
a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also 
in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some peo- 
ple still make use of gin, a contraction of given : thus, ' I will pardon my 
»on, gin hb reform.' But who will contend, that they speak pure English ? 
But perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development 
fiflanguage, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely sup- 



124 EUYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Joseph and his brother reside in New- York. The sun, moaji^ 
and stars, admonish us of a superiour and superintending Power- 
I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henr) 
and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henr^ 
Or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. NeiUiei 
rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, 
^rtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and inte- 
rest : they support him in adversity, and comfort him in pros- 
perity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United 
States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary 
institutions. 

Note. The verb form is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular^ 
connected by copulative conjunctions, according to Rule 8. The verb eom- 
fort agrees with they for its nominative. It is connected to support by the 
conjunction and, agreeably to Rule 34. ^ng^ls is nom. to are understood 
and Great Briiain is nom. to can boast understood, according to Rule 35, 
REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PRIEPOSITIONS. 

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an ad- 
verb, or a preposition. " I submitted, }br it was in. vain to resist ;" in this 
example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a 
compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in 
the objective case : " He contended for victory only." 

In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the se- 
cond, it IS a preposition, and m the third, an adverb ; " Since we must part, 
let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since that time ; Our friendship 
commenced long since." 

" Ke will repent before he dies ; Stand before me ; Why did jou not re- 
turn before''^ [that or this time ;] in the first of these three examples, before is 
an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects ; and in 
the second and third, it is a preposition. 

As tb.o words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. 
Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a 
loss to perceive tTie connecting power of a preposition or conjunction, for 
every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, 
sentences or members of sentence:?. Whenever a sentence begins with a 
preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed ; as, " In the days of 
.Toram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" "i/'thou seek tho 
Lord, he m'iII be found of thee ; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off 
for ever." 

ply an ellipsis. If, by an eUipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary to 
the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In 
teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes: — 
we ought neither to pass superficially over an elHpsis necessary to the senaf* 
of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting amode of 
resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our lan- 
guage, and carry the learner back to the Vandalick age. 

But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-xdan, to be-out. " All were well hul 
{he-out, leave-out) the stranger." " Man is but a reed, floating on the current 
of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on the current of time ; hut 
ihe-oui this fact) he is not a stable being." 

And — ctnod, an\h and, is the past part, of ananad, io add, join. *^ %}^mi 



CONJUNCTIOXS. 125 

" When coldness wraps this sufTering clay, 
" Ah, whither strays the immortal mind ?" 

That the words tw, if, and tckeji, in these examples, connect the members 
of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear 
jf we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles 
bettoeen the members which they connect : thus, " Elisha the prophet flour- 
ished in the days of Joram kin^ of Israel ;" "The Lord will be found of thfre 
(/"thou seek him ; but he will cast thee off for ever i/thou forsake him : 

"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, 

" When coldness wraps this suffering clay ?" 

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these 

QUES^PtONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term conjunction derived? — -What is 
a sentence? — What is a simple sentence? — What is a compound 
sentence? — Give examples. — In what respect do conjunctions 
and prepositions agree in their nature? — How many sorts of 
conjunctions are there? — Repeat the Usts of conjunctions. — Re- 
peat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions. — 
Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences? — Repeat the or- 
der of parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in park- 
ing a conjunction? — What Rule should be applied in parsing a 
noun or pronoun connected with another? — What Rule in pars- 
ing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected 
by a copulative conjunction ? — What Rule when the nouns are 
connected by a disjunctive ? — In parsing a verb connected to 
another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply ? — Is a con- 
junction ever used as other parts of speech? — Give examples. — 
What is said of the words fon since, and before ? — What is said 
of the transposition of sentences ? 

or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. 
And also refers to the thing that \q joined to, added to, or made one with, some 
other person or thing mentioned. " Julius and Harriet will make a happy 
pair." Resolution : "Julius, Harriet jamcrf, united, or aried, will make a hap- 
py pair ;" i. e. Harriet made one with Julius, will make a happy pair. 

For means cause. 

BectRise — be-cause, is a compound of the verb be, and the noun cause. It 
retains the meaning of both ; as, " I believe the maxim, for I know it to be 
true ;" — " I beUeve the maxim, be-cause I know it to be true ;" i. e, the cause 
of my belief, be, or is, I know it to be true. 

J>ror is a contraction of ne w. J^e is a contraction of nof, and or^ of other. 
J^or is, not other-wise: not in the other way or manner. 

Else ie the imperative ofalesan, unless, otonlesan, and lest, the past part, of 
lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. " He will be punish- 
ed, tmless he repent ;^^—*'UnlesSjrelease, give up (the fact) he repents, he will 
be punished." 

Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafigan, to allow, and yet, of 
getan, to get. Yet is simply, get; ancient g is our modern y. " Though he slay 
me, yet will I trust m him : — Grant or alloio (the fact) he slay mc, get, or rc'- 
tain (the opposite fact) I will trust in him." 



126 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions dewved ?-= 
What is Home Tooke's opinion of that? — From what is each of the follow 
■ing words derived, that, if, but, and. because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, and 

■yet ? 



liECTUBE X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS.— CASES OF NOUNS. ' 

Interjections are words which express the 
sudden emotions of the speaker ; as, " ^las ! I 
fear for life;" "• O death ! where is thy sting?" 

" Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of 
feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; but 
vvhen so employed, it is not the representative of a distinct idea. 
A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must 
necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who 
wish to speak often, or rather, to make noises, when they have 
no useful information to communicate, are apt to use words very 
freelv in this way; such as the following expressions, la, la me, 
my, Omy, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the 
like. 

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally 
knovm by their taking an exclamation point after them. 
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. 

1. 0( earnestness OY grief ; as, O ! oh! ah! alas! 

2. Cojitentpt; as. Pish ! tush I 

3. Wonder; as, Heigh ! really ! strange ! 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

The term Interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed 
both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, pas- 
sions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, 
sigliing, crying, sci-eaniing, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, 
growling, and Whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep 
iu bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in 
quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent 
by words ; but, as toritten words are the ocular representatives of articulate 
sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct 
noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language ; but they 
fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, real interjections are 
not a nart of \A'i-itten language. 



ISTERJEtTIONS. — PARSING. 127 

4. CaUiiig ; as, Hem ! ho ! halloo ! 

5. Disgust ov aversion ; as, Foh ! fy ! fudge ! nway ! 

6. Jitteniion ; as, Lo ! hchdld ! hark ! 

7. Requcsiing silence ; as. Hush ! hist ! 

S. Salutation ; as. Welcome ! hail ! all hail ! 

Note. We frequently meet v/ith v.'liat some call an into jecllve phrase ; 
■«ch as, Ungrateful wretch ! impudence of hope ! folly in the extreme ! what 
ingratitude ! away v. ith him ! 

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the 
English language, it will require but little attention. You may, 
however, make yourself well acquainted with what has beeii 
said respeolmg it, and then commit the 

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of jjarsing cm Interjection, is — 
an interjection, and why ? 

"0 virtue ! how amiable thou art!" 
O is an interjection, a word used to express some passion Oi' 
emotion of flie speaker. 

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and eluci- 
dated, although some of them have not been fully explained. 
Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again 
at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observ- 
ing to pai'se every example in the exercises systematically. Yon 
will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain 
all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a 
c!ay, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a 
critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six iveeks ; 
but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you 
nearly three mo7iihs to acquire the same knowledge. 
EXERCISES m PARSING. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- 
motes the happiness of all around him. 

Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it doubles the 
lustre of every virtue v/hich it seems to hide. 

The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily 
shown by tracing them to their roots. 

Pish and pihaio SLTii ihe Anglo-Saxon 2>c6c, paeca; and are equivalent to 
trumpery! i. e. tromperie^ from tromper. 

Fy or fie is the imperative, foe, the past tense, and foh or fuugh, the past 
part, of the Saxon verb^ctn, to hate. 

Lo is the imperative of look. Hcdt is the imperative of hedden, to hold, 
Farewell— fare-well, is a compound of faran, to go, and the adverb well. It 
means, to go well. Welcome — xoell-come, signifies, it is well that you are 
come. Adieu comes from the French a Dieir, to God ; meaning, I commend 
you to God. 



123 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the d^,yj 
and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him 
through the labyrinth of the most busy life. 

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that 
barbarous act ; but, alas! I fear the consequence. 

E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 

I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; 

And, placed on high, above the storm's career, 

T^ook downward where a hundred realms appear : — 

, Alas! the joys that fortune brings, 
Are trifling, and decay; 
And those who mind the paltry things, 
More trifling still than they. 

Note. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, which is gov- 
erned by the verb to hide, according to Rule 16. He is nom. to carries , 
who is nom. to plans. Folloxos agrees with who vmderstood, and is connected 
to plans hy and ; Rule 34. What did the king give ? A reward to me. Then 
rt' ard is in the obj. case, gov. by gave; Rule 20. Me is gov. by to under- 
stood ; Note 1, Rule 32. The phrase, coynmitting that barbarous act, is gov. 
by for , Note 2, under Rule 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by to spend; 
Rule 20. Look is connected to set by and ; Rule 34. Joys is nom. to are. 
That is gov. by brings ; Rule 10. Those is nom. to are understood. They 
is nom. to m'e understood ; Rule 35. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive 
explanation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, in many 
situations, a little difHcult to be ascertained, I will now offer 
some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish 
you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, 
observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the sub- 
joined Note. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. 

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines 
after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. 
Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, 
"He who, every morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb 
to which he is nominative. What does he do? He carries on 
a thread, &c. He, then, is nominative to the verb carries. 
What does tcho do ? Who plans, and who folloivs, &c. Then 
7i}ho is nom. to plans, and ivho understood, is nominative to 
follows. 

" A soul without reflection, like a pile 
" Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." 

In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sen* 
tence, is the nominative, put the question ; What does a som 
mthmit Inflection do ? Such a soul rtms to ruin, like a pilo 



ithout inhabitant. Tlius you discover, that soul is nominative 
I mns, 

>Micn the words of a sentence are arranged according to their 
itural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed bo- 
re the verb, and the objective, after it ; but when the words of 
sentence are transposed ; that is, not arranged according to 
cir natural order, it frequently^, happens, that the nominative 
)mes afterj and the objective, 6e/bre the verb ; especially in 
>etry, or when a question is asked : as, " Whence arises the 
isery of the present world 1" "What good thing shall I do to 
herit eter^trHile 1" Put these expressions in the declarative 
rm, and the nominative wiWpreccdey and the objective /o//oiy 
; verb . thu^ ^'^ The misery bf the present world arises whence ; 
shall do what good thing to inherit eternal life." 

'' Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
" Had, in her sober livery, all things clad." 
** Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore 
" With patience many a year she bore." 

What did the evening do 1 The evening caine on. Gray ^a^r- 
r}^ had clad what ? Twilight had clad all things in her sober 
r'ery. £ye7u'ng-,then,is nom. to came, and the noun things is 

the objective case, and gov. by had clad : Rule 20. What 
d she bear ? She bore thy rigid lore with patience, for, or dm^- 
g, many a year. Hence you find, that lore is in the objective 
ise, and governed by bGre, according to Rule 20. Y§ar is 
)v. by during understood : Rule 32. 

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in 
c objective, and governed by a verb understood ; as, " Lo, 
hereis~\ the \>ooy Indian! whose untutored mind." " 0, the 
Un [^thereit!^ the bliss [^there is] in dying!" " xill were 
ink, but the wakeful nightingale \^was not simh.^^'] '* He 
ought as a sage '[thinks,'] though he felt as a man [/««?«• "1 
His hopes, immortal, blow them by, as dust [is blown %." j 
ule 35 applies to these last three examples. 

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and 
onouns which have not yet come undei our notice. Some- 
nes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it 
IS no verb to agree with it. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Whenever a direct address is made, the person 
r thing spoken /o, is in the nominative case inde* 
indent; as, '* James ^ I desire you to study," 



1.30 HTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to JmneSj 
that is, I speak to him ; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, 
either expressed or impUed, to which James can be the nomina- 
tive ; therefore you know that James is in the nom. case inde** 
pendent, according to Rule 5. Recollect, th^i tchenever a noun 
is of the second person, it is in the nom. case independent ; thai 
is, independent of any verb; as, Selma, thy halls are .silent; 
Love and meekness, my lord, become a churchman, better than 
ambition ; O Jerusalem, Jerusalera, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her 

chickens under her wings, but ye would not ! For a farther 

illustration of this case, see Note 2, under tjie &th Rule of 
Syntax. 

Note. Wh«n a pronoun of the second person is in apposition with a noUn 
Independent, it is in the same case ; as, " Thou traitor, I detest thee." 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. 
A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
without any verb to agree with it, is in the nom- 
inative case absolute ; as, "The simbeiiig risen, 
we pursued our journey." 

Sun is here placed before the participle i^ being risen,*' and 
has no verb to agree with it ; therefore it is in the nominative 
ease absolute, according to Rule 6. 

NoiE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is ai 
ways of the second person j but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the 
third person. 

2. The ease absolute is always nominative ; the following sentence i» 
tlierefcre incorrect: "AVhose top shall tremble, /nm descending," &c. ; i! 
-Should be, he descending. 

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 
Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the 
same person or thing, are put, by apposition, in 
the same case ; as, " Cicero, the great oraior^ 
philosopher, and statesman of Rome, vas mur- 
dered by Anthony," 

Apposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, 
or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the 
s'ense of the first name mentioned. 

You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is mere- 
ly the proper name of a man ; but when I give him the threo 
iidditional appellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher ^ 
and statesman, you understand what kind of a man he was ; tha( 



CASES OF ^■OUNS. — PARSIT^C.. 13t 

"' by giving liim these tliree additional names, his character ami 
abihtics as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, 
you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be 
in the same case, for they are all names given to the same 
pprson ; therefore, if Cicero was murdered, the orator was mur- 
dered, and the philosopher was murdered, and the statesman wiis 
nuirdered, because they all mean one and the same person. 

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently iji 
apposition ; as, He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvi 
ous, that, when he struck Charles, he struck th^ sfvdent, because 
Oharles was tKes^de7i#, and the s^ude-^d tvas '<^harles ; therefore 
the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," 
and put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. 

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will 
I then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and 
?ystemaiically. 

PARSING. 

^"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore." 

J^aid is a noun, the name of a person — ^com. the name of a 
««)rt — fern, gender, it denotes a female — second pers. spokon 
to— sing. num. it implies but one — and in the nominative case 
ndependent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree 
with it, according to 

Rule 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad- 
iressedfisput in the nominative case independent. 

" The general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted Him 
.0 depart." 

General is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full :) — and in 
he nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the 
)articiple *' being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with 
t, agreeably to 

Rule 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and 
mng independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominaiiv^ 
}ase absolute. 

- " TJiou man of God, flee to the land of Judali." 
TJiou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
t personates "man" — second pers. spoken to — mas. gender, 
ling. num. because the noun " man" is for which it stands ; 
luLE 13. (Repeat the Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case 
ndependent, and put by apposition with man, because it signi- 
ies the same thing, according to 

iRuLE 7. Tuio m' more nouns, or nouns and pt^onouns, sigtd^ 



132 ETYMOLOGY ANB SYNTAX. 

Man is in the nominative case independent, according to 
Rule 6. Flee agrees with thou understood. 

" Lo ! JYeiVtony prieH of Nature, shines afur, 

*' Scans, the wide world, and numbers erery star." 

JYewton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominatiVS 
case to "shines :" Rule 3. . 

Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. cas^, it is 
the actor and subject of the verb " shines," and put bj apposition 
with " Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.) 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

aTttt^from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of 
Jght, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair ! proclaim your 
Maker's wondrous power. king ! live for ever. The mm- 
mur of thy streams, Lora, brings back the memory of the 
past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my eai% 
Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath? 
Three aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its 
feet ; there the flower of tlie mountain grows, and shakes its 
white head in the breeze. 

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce 
having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done 
away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being 
in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain 
having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, 
while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and incon- 
veniences of human nature, sin excepted ; (that is, sin being ex>- 
cepted.) 

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the p'-ophet 
Elisha. Paul the apostle suflered rnirtyrdom. Come, peace 
of mind, delightful guest ! and dwe- vith me. Friends, Ro» 
mans, countrymen, lend me your ear 

Soul of the just, companion of the dead ! 
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? 

Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower : — 
The world was sad, the garden was a wild, 
And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. 

Note. Those verbs in italicks, in the preceding examples, are ail in tha 
imperative mood, and second person, agreeing with thca-^, ye, or you, nnder- 
stood. House of Israelis a noun of multitude. Was routed and must be done 
are passive verbs, ^^rt fled is a neuter verb in a passive fomn. Clothed is a 
perfect particiolc. TiU, h an adverbi?>l coniunction. 



«^«*0O3 OF VERSS. 13^ 

Wlien } ®a ^lall have analyzed, systematically, cvoiy word in 
file foregoing exercises, you may answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 
Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeat some interjective 
j^hrasps. — Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. — In or- 
lisr to find the verb to which a noim is nom. what question do 
fou put ? — Oive examples.-— Is the nominative case ever placed 
after the verb? — Whcu ? — Give examples. — Does the obiective 
case ever come before the verb 1 — Give examples. — Is a jioun 
ever nom. to ^rv^STh understood ? — Give examples. — When is a 
noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent 1 — Give exam- 
ples. — Are nouns of the second person always in the nom. case 
independent 1 — Wlien a pronoun is put by apposition with a 
Qoun independent, in what case is it 1 — When is a noun or pro- 
noim in the nom. case absolute? — Give examples.— When are 
nouns or nouns and pronouns put, by apposition, in th*^ same 
case ? — Give examples. — In parsing a noun or pronoun in the 
nom. case mdependent, what Rule should be apphed? — In pars- 
ing the nom. case absolute, what Rule 1 — What Rule in panning 
nouns or pronouns in apposition ? — Do real interjection:* belong 
to written language ? {Phil. JVotes.) — From what are the fol- 
lowing words derived, pishjfyy lOf liaUf farewellf ivdcome^ adieu ! 



b:.ectuhe xs. 

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

Vou "lave now acqurlW a general, and, I may say, an exten- 
sive, knowledge of nine part^Rf speech ; but you know but 
little, as yet, respecting the mt/sFimportant one of all; I meaa 
the Verb. I will, therefore, comiuence this lecture oy giving 
yon an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have 
the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lec- 
ture n. and reflect vvell upon what is there said respecting the 
verb ; after which I will conduct yojj so smoothly through the 
moods and tenses, and the conjugatio^of verbs, that, instead of 
finding yourself involved in obscuritieiBknd deep intricacies, you 

•U scr».rce!y find an obstruction to imncdo.your progress. 



134 £TYfir»L«€Y Also SYSfSAX. 

I. OF THE MOODS. 

The Mood or Mode of a verb means the man 
ner in which its action, passion, or being, is re 
presented. 

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the dcclara^ 
live or indicative mode ; as, The man walks ; but sometime? 
he action or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful 
and then I must not declare it positively, but I must adopt 
another mode of expressioH ; thus. If the man loaik, he will re- 
fi-esh himself with the bland breezes. This second mode or 
manner of representing the action, is called the subjunctive oi 
conditional mode. 

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to 
declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or con 
ditional manner ; but we wish to command some one to act 
We then use the imperative or commanding mode, and saj, 
JValk, sir. And when we do not wish to command a man to 
act, we sometimes allude to his poicer or ability to act. Thjs 
fourth mode of representing action, is called the potential mode; 
as, He can walk ; He covid walk. The fifth and last mode, 
called the infinitive or unlimited mode, we employ in expressing 
action in an unlimited manner ; that is, without confining it, in 
respect to number and person, to any particular agent , as. To 
walk, to ride. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, op 
manner of representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, 
must vary according to the different intentions of the mind. 

Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the 
mode or manner of representing action or being, the number ol 
moods in our language would amount to many hundr(<ds. Birfc^ 
this principle of division and arrangement^^ followed out tn de- 
tail, would lead to great perplexity, withoj^roducing anv bene- 
ficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Herraes, is 
much more curious than instructive, ^fie has fourteen moods ; 
his interrogative, optative, hort^ve, '^missive, p^^ecautine^ re- 
quisitive, enunciative, &c. BulBcs far as philosophical accuracy 
and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concern- 
ed, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the fol- 
lowing. I am not unaware that plausible objections may be 
Faised against it ; but what arrangement cannot be objected to ? 



There are five mqods of verbs, the Indicative^ 
the Subjinictive, t|fe Imperative, the PoteMia>» 



I 



jMOOD S 01' V E R LJS . il'3 5 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or de- 
dares a tiling ; as, " He lorites :" or it asks a 
question ; as, " Does he ivrite? Who wrote that ?" 

The term indicative^ comes from the Latin iiidico, to declare. 
rience, the legitimate province of the indicative mood,is to dc" 
clave things, whether positively or negatively ; thus, posilivelif^ 
He came with me ; negatively, He came not with me. But hi 
order to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, 
and use the indicative mood m asking a question ; as. Who came 
\j'ith you 1 ■ 

The subjVmctive mood being more analogous to the indica- 
live in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented 
next in order. This mood, however, differs materially from the 
'ndicative in sense ; therefore you ought to make yourself weU 
acquainted with the nature of the indicative, before you coniv 
mcnce with the subjunctive. 

The Subjunctive Mood expresses action, 
passion, or being, in a dotibtfid or conditional 
manner : or. 

When a verb is preceded by a word that ex- 
presses a condition, doubt, motive wish, or sup- 
position, it is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, " If 
he study^ he will improve ; I wil] respect him, 
though he chide me ; H will not be pardoned, im- 
less he repent ; Had he been there, he would have 
ronquered ;" (that is, i/'he had been the e.) 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding exam- 
ples, express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore the verbs study, 
chide, repent, anc' had been, are in the subjunctive mood. 

Note 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in 
some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding 
examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in 
the potential. 

2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, or 
nny others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that follow them are in 
the subjunctive mood ; as, " If he ride out every day, his health will probably 
froprove ;" that is, if he shall or should ride out hereafter. But when these* 
conjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in tho 
iadicative, or some other mood ; as, " Though he ride.s out daily, his health 
is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are explain 
cd-in the conjugation of the verb to love. See page 145. 

The Imperative Mood is used for command 
ing^ exhorting^, entreating, cr permitting; as^ 



1S6 HTYM'OLOeY AND SYNIfASi 

•• Depart thou ; Remember my admonitions ; Tm^- 
ry awhile longer ; Go in peace." 

The verb depart expresses a command ; remember exhorts ; 
tarry expresses entreaty ; and go, permission ; therefore they 
are all in the imperative mood. 

The imperative^ from impero, to command, is literally that 
mode of the verb used in commanding ; but its technical mean- 
ing in grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, 
entreating, and permitting. 

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second per 
son, though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, 
ye, or you, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in 
this mood by the sense ; recollect, however, that the nominative 
is always second person, and frequently understood ; as, George, 
give me ray hat ; that is, give thou, or give you. When the 
nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the verb ; as, 
Go tlion ; Depart ye ; or between the auxiliary and the verb ; 
as, Do thou go ; Do ye depart. {Do is the auxiliary.) 

The Potential Mood implies possibility, 
liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation ; 
as, '' It may rain ; He may go or stay ; We must 
eat Hi id drink ; I can ride; He \ooidd ivalk ; TheT 
should learn''^ 

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary may implies pos 
sibility ; in the second it imphes liberty ; that is, he is at liberty 
fo go or to stay ; in the third, must denotes necessity ; can de- 
notes power or ability ; would implies will or inclination ; that 
is, he had a mind to walk ; and should implies obligation. Henc« 

PHILOSOPHICAL VOTES. 

The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been 
fomed by the coalescence of words of appropriate meaning. This snbjecJ 
was approached on page 49. It is a^ain taken up for the purpose of show- 
ing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number and person, of Eng- 
!ish verbs, do not solely depend on inflection. 

The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the He- 
brew verb, are still considered pronouns ; and, by those who have investi- 
gated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has been adopted in 
the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in the Hebrew. Some 
languages have carried this process to a very great extent. Ours is remark- 
able for the small number of its inflections. But they who reject the passive 
verb, and those moods and tenses which are formed by employing what ars 
called " auxiliary verbs," because they are formed oftivo or ra&re verbs^ do nof 
fvppear to reason soundly, It is inconsistent to admit, that wa\k~eth, and 
»;i'i>Ik-e.i, are t^ns':^. because eaeh is hut one word, and to reject fmve w.alk- 



MOODS. 13,7 

vou pel-ccive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must 
drink, can ride, would walk, and should learn, are in the poten- 
tial mood. 

Note 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive when it is preceded by a conjunction exprcssinij doubt, contingency, 
supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, in like manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive ; as, "//"I couM deceive him, I should abhor it ; 
Tlwugb he shmdd increase in wealth, he would not he charitable." I could 
deceive, is in tne potential ; If I coidd deceive, is in the subjunctive mood. 

2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is \xsvx\ in asking a ques 
tion ; as, " May I go ? Could you understand him ? Must we die ?" 

The IxFi^LiitvE Mood expresses action, pas- 
sion, or benig, in a general and unlimited man- 
ner, having no nominative, consequently, neither 
person nor number ; as, " To speak^ to walk,^"* 

Infinilive means unconfined, or unlimited. Tliis mood is 
called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to 
a nominative. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, 
it must agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a 
erb in this mood has no nominative, therefore, it never changes 
its termination, except to form the perfect tense. Now you un- 
derstand why all verbs are called finite or limited^ excepting 
those in the infinitive mood. 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood belore ttie 
rerb ; as, " Let me p'-oceed ;" that is, Let me to proceed. See Rule 25. To 
s not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood ; thus, to ride, to 
rule; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it. 

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that 
wiien I say, I write, the verb is in the indicative mood ; but wtien 
1 say, if I write, or, unless I write, &c. the verb is in the =jub- 
jimctive mood ; ivrite thou, or luriie ye or you, the imperative , 
I may write, I must lorite, I could write, SfC. the potential ; and 

e3, and will walk, as tenses, because each is composed of two words. Eih^ 
as previously shown, is a contraction o'l doeUi, or haveth, and ed, of dede, dodo, 
iloed, or did; and, therefore, walk-eth; i. e. walk-doeth, or (/oe/I/i-walk, ann 
walk-erf; i.e. walk-did, or doed or did-walk, are, when analyzed, as stHctly 
compound, as lolU walk, shall walk, and have wo.Iked. The only differenco 
in the formation of these tenses, is, that in the two former, the associateu 
verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in 
the two latter, they still maintain tJieir ground as separate words. 

If it be said that ivill wcdk is composed of two words, each of which con- 
vey? a distnict idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by itself, the same 
argument, with all its force, may be applied to walk-eJ/?, wa!k-£(/, walk-did, 
or did walk. The result of all the investigations of this subject, appears tx* 
settle down into the hackneyed truism, that the passive vcibs, and the moods 
and tenses, of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations 
cither prefixed or posthxed, and of other languages, by the association of 
auxiliary.' verb?, wliich have not yet been contracted and made to coalesce 

1 nUi> 



138 ETVMOLOGfV AND SYNTA3. 

fo winie, the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defectiY©) 
umy be employed in the same manner. 

II. OF THE TENSES. 

Tense means time. 

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Impe*- 
fect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First 
ond Second Future tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action oy 
event as taking place at the time in which it is 
mentioned ; as, "1 smile ; I see ; I am seenJ'^ 

Note I. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions continundl, 
with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, " He rides out every 
morning." 

2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons 
■ ong since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and nwralizes well ; An honest man 
is the noblest work of God." 

3. When the present tense is preceded by the v/ords, when, before, ofttr, 
■ys soon as,.&c. it is sometimes used to point out the relative tinie of a future 
action ; as, " When he arrives we shall hear the news." 

The Imperfect Tense denotes a past action 
or e*yent, however distant ; or, 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action ov 
event as past and finished, but v/ithout defining 
the precise time of its completion ; as, ** I loved 
her for her modesty and virtue ; They toere trav 
elling post when he met them." 

In these examples, the verbs loved and met express past and 
finished actions, and therefore constitute a perfect tense as 
strictly as any form of the verb in our language ; but, as they do 

S3 terndnations. The auxiliary, when contracted into a terminating syttahlc^ 
retains its distinct and intrinsick meaning, os vnnch as when associated with 
a verb by juxtaposition • consequently, an " auxiliary verb" may form a part 
of a mood or tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a terminating 
syllaHe. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxilitt- 
nes distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, 
bound to extend their dissect ng-knife to every compound toord in the language. 

Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of tb« 
theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, formed by the 
aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to show that this theory, 
and this only, will subserve the purposes of the practical grammarian. 

As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact 
meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to com- 
bine an3 employ them properly in framing tientencee, and as those ccnihtna 
Uons which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs, are ne- 
^ess:\iy in -writrng and discourf^o, t* rol?r)we»- conclusively, th?.t tMt theory 



;iot (lefine the precise time of the completion of these actions, 
their tense may properly be denominated an indefiniie past. By 
defining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we 
have an imperfect tense in the expression, were travelUng. Thi<5 
isourse, however, would not be in accordance with the ordinary 
method of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the term>. 
imperfect and perfect, as applied to ibis and the next succeeding 
tense, are not altogether signiRcant of their true character ; but 
li you learn to apply these tenses correclbj, the propriety or im- 
propriety of their names is net a corisidoratioji of very great mo- 
ment. 

The P erfe ct Tense denotes past time, and 
also conve(ys an allusion to the present ; as, **'! 
have finished my letter." 

The verb have fnished, in this example, signifies that the ac- 
fcion, though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time imme- 
diately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to 
Ihe present. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect 
may be properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only 
fhe completion of the action, but, al«o, alludes to the particular 
period of its accomplishment. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a past 
action or event that transpired before some other 
past time specified ; as, " I haelfiinshed my letter 
fcefore my brother arrived.'' 

You observe that the \cvb had fimRhed, in this exajnple, repre- 
sents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another pc*.' 
action ; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, bcca'dsc 

which does not explain these verbs ia tho:r comhincd s'ate, cannot triich t).e 
student the correct use and ann^iention of the verbs cf our lancupire. By siith 
nn arrangcrncnl, he cannot Uam when it is proper to use tlie pinaf-e,^, shall 
tiate xoaliced, might have gone, have seen, instead of, shall ivalk, mi^hl go, and sair; 
because this theory has nothing to do v.ith tlio combining of verbid. If it be 
alleged, that the speaker or wntcrs own sood sense must gnide liini in corr:- 
bining these verbs, and, therefore, that the directions of the gramtnaririr 
are unnecessary, it must be recoHectcd, that such an argument u-onld bear, 
equally, against every principle of granjniar whatever. In short, the tlieory 
oi the compound tenses, and of the pas3ivevCib,appcaf3tobeso finnly based 
Tn tliC genius of our language, and so practically inipoitant to the student, as 
to defy all the engines of the paraiogistick speculator, and the philosophical 
quibbler, to batter it down. 

But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, ti:at it io encumbered 
v/ith much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, which arc avoided by 
iv,-. rimrie prort'So of cxplodingthe passive verb, and vedacing the number ot 



Mi) ETYMOLOGY AUD SYr^TAX. 

the actioa took place prior to the taking place of tiie other past 
action specified in the same sentence. 

The First Future Tense denotes a future 
action or event ; as, ''I ivill finish ; I shall finish 
my let^er."^ 

The Second Future Tense represents a fti- 
ture action that will be fully accomplished, at or 
before the time of another future action or event ; 
as, " 1 shall have finished my letter when my 
brother arrives." 

This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper 
use of the second future tense. The verb "shall have finished" 
implies a future action that will be completely finished, at or be- 
fore the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase, 
"^ IV hen my brother arrives." 

N9TE. What is sometimes called the IncepUve future, is expressed thus ; 
"I a.m going to write ;" "lam about to write.'''' Future time is also indi- 
cated by placing the infinitive present immediately after the indicative pre-- 
sent of the verb to be ; thus, " I am to write ;" " Harrison is to 6e, or ought 
lobe, commander in chief;" " Harrison is to command tlie army." 

You may now read what is said respecting the moods and 
tenses several times over, and then you may learn to conjugate 
a verb. But, before you proceed to die conjugation of verbsj. 
yon will please to commit the following paragraph on the Auxil- 
iary verbs, and, also, the signs of the moods and tenses ; and, in 
Coijjugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in 
which these signs are applied. 

OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Auxiliary or Helping Verbs are those by 
the help of which the English verbs are princi- 

the moods to three, and of the tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if '} 
we.reject the names of the perfect, phiperfect, and future tenses, the names 
oV^the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing.;! 
and discojirse we must still employ those verbal combinations which form v 
them ; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of employing such 
combinations, is as easily tau£;ht or learned by the old theory, which names' 
them, as by thp new, which gives them no name. 

On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the futnre 
lonses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately ; but, as illustrated on 
i)age 79, the combined words which form our perfect and phiperfect tenses, 
nave an associated meaning, which is destroyed by analysing each word sepa- 
rately. That arrangement, therefore, whicli rejects these tenses, appears to 
be, not only tinph'Uosophical, but inconsistent and inaccurate, 
^ For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adop- 
tion, too, arasodcrniaed 7)hU-osophict' theory of the moods ajid tenses is here' 



Si-KNS OF THE MOODS AND TENSES- ]41 

pally conjugated. Mew, can^ Jiiusi, might, cotild, 
would, sfwidd, and shalU a^e always auxiliaries ; 
do, be, have, and ?r?7/, are sometimes auxiliaries, 
and sometimes principal verbs. 

The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the follo^ving conjiiira 
flkon. 

SIGNS OF THK MOODS. 

The Indicative Mood is known by the sense, or 
by its having 7io sign, except in asking a ques- 
lion ; as, "fWfio loves you V 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, 
whether, and lest, are generally signs of the Sub 
fanctive ; as, '^ If I love; unless 1 love,'''' &c. 

A verb is generally known to be in the Impera- 
tive Mood by its agreeing with thou, or ye or you, 
understood ; as, ^' Love virtue, and follow her 
steps ;" that is, love thou, or love ye or you ; fol- 
low thou, &c. 

May, can, and must, might, could, tvoidd, and 
should, are signs of the Potential Mood; as, ** I 
may love ; I must love ; I should love," &c. 

To is the sign of the InfinitiDe; i^s. " To love, 

> smile, to hate, to walk/' 

SIGNS OF THE TENSE '3. 

The first form of the verb is the sig.x ... Jic 
fir^sent tense ; as, love, smile, hate, tvalk. 

"sented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they 
"(1 not he.--itate to adopt it. It has the advantaare of being 7if?u ; and, 
•roover, it soiin--*.-? large, and v/ill make the commonalty stare. Let it be dis- 
ictly understood, that you teach '* ■philosophical grannnar, founded cnreascn 
'/ common sense," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all 
•■■': ^ood ^"'Msewivcs wouder at the rapid march of intellect, and the \'ast 
jrovi-uw, 's of thfc cge. 

MOOD. 

Verlis have thrcf mood?:, the indicative, (emhra'ing what is commonly in- 
mder the indicctivr, the subjunctice, and the p?lcn'ud,) the impera- 
' the inllnitivc. — For definition?, refer to the body of the work. 

TENSE OR TIME. 

• < ; -^ have only two tenf^cs, the present and the past. 

ch exprossinof action commenced and not completed, is in the present 
as, '* Religion soars: it has gr.incd many viptnrle? : it icUl fto] .cSn*^' 
■fs to thp b}i,ssft?l reoicTT!?!''' 



14*2 ETV^OhOGW AfiD SA'NTA'X 

Ed — the imperfect tense of regular veiibs 
Jis, loved, smiled, hated, ivalked. 

Have — the perfect ; as, have loved. 

Had — the pkiperfect ; as, had loved. 

Shall or ivill — the first future ; as, shall love 
or ivill love ; shall smile, ivill smile. 

Shall or will have — the second future ; as 
shall have loved, or ivill have loved. 

Note. There are some exceptions to these signs, whicli you will notie< 
by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. 

Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and ad- 
vantage, as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and 
tenses before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood. 
If you do, the supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate 
verbs, will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime. 

The Indicative Mood has six tenses. 

The Subjunctive has also six tenses. 

The Imperative has only one tense. 

The Potential hsi^ four tenses. 

The Infinitive has two tenses. ^ 

CONJUGATION OF TERES. 

The CoNJUGATioisr of a verb is the reguia 
combination and arrangement of its several num.| 
hers, persons, moods, and tenses. j 

The Conjugation of an active verb, is style' 
t}ie active voice ; and that of a passive verb, th 
passive voice, ,.. i 

When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense ; as, "Tli 
page (the Bible) God hung out of heaven, and retired.'''' li'i 

A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the prwIiM 
tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The command m'J lie 
vecessarily be given in time present, although its fidjilment must be future I tign 
John, what are you doing ? I^earning my task. Why do you learn liiooi 
Because my preceptor commanded me to do so. When did he commfil Jo 
you? Yesterday. — Not ?jot(?, of course, "ffitfl 

That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to'Biw 
given m future time, and that the fulfilment ef the command, though futiB^ 
iias nothing to do witli the tense or time of the coniniand itself, are tnithil'n':? 
plain as to put to the blusli the gross absurdity of thop6 who identiftrj 
Time of t!ie fulfilment with that of the command. 



^ 



i veros arc caiieti rveguiar vvnuii uiyj *umi uien 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and thdr 
perfect participle, by adding to the present tei\se 
ed, or d only when the verb ends in c ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Verf. Participle. / 

I favour. I favoured. favoured. f 

I love. I loved. loved. 

A Regular Yerb is conjugated in the following rttanner. 
To Love. — Indicative Mood. 
^ Present Tense 

i^mgular. Flunjh 

\. Pers. Hove, 1. We loVe, 

2. Pers, Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you |ove, 

3. Pers. He, she, or it, lov- ) 3. They love, 
eth or loves. ) 

When we wish to express energy or positivcnes?, the auxiliary do shou 
|>Eececle the verb in the present tense : thus, 

Sin^ar. Plurd. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

a Thou dost love, 2'. Ye or 3'ou d© foyc, 

3. He doth or does love. 3. They do lovp. 

Trnperfect Tense. 

Singular. Fht'dii 

1. I loved, 1. We love^ 

2. Thou lovedst', 2. Ye or you loy$d. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 
Or by prefixing did to the present : thus, 
Singular, Plural. 

1 1 did love, 1. We did lOve, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye or you did love, 

3. He did love. 3. Tbey did love. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

¥ou 7nay read tlie book which I have prinled. 

J^btyi, an irregular active verb, signifying " to have and to exercise might 
hi strength," indie, mood, pres. tense, second pers: plur. agreeing with its 
nom. you. Read, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense, witJi 
the sign to understood, referring to you as its agent. Have, an active verb, 
signifying to possess, inuic. present, and having for its object, book under^ 
^ood after " which." Printed, a perf. participle, referring to book understood. 

Johnson, and Blair, and Lowtb, lomdd have been laughed at, had they ezsay- 
cd to thnist any thing hke our modernized philosophical grammar down tho 
throats of their cotemporaries. 

Wo^dd, an active verb, signifying " to exercise volition," in the past tense 
of the indicative. //cy«, a verib, in the infinitive, to understood. Been, a per- 



U'i EfYMULoaV AM) 9YNTA*. 

Perfect Tense. 
SiuiTuhii; Plural, 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loveS, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. Ho hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. T had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hT.(l^t loved, 2. Ye or you had lovefi, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

-1.. I shall or will love, I, We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. Ye or you shall or will 

d. He shall or will love. love, 

t .3. They sliall or will love. 
Second Future Tense. 

Singidar. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loveiS, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you will have 

3. He will have loved. loved, 

3. They v.l11 have love^. 

Note. Tenses formed v/iiliout auxiliaries, are callsfi simple tenses ; as. I 
tovc ; I Icvcd ; but those formed by the help of ausiliarics, are denominates 
cGTnpound tenses ; as, I have loved ; I hal loveJ^ &c. 

This display of the verb shov/s you, in the clearest light, tha 
application of the signs of the lenses, which signs ought 1o be 
perfectlv committed to memoiy before you proceed any farther- 
By looking ajrain-at the conjugation, you will notice, that hnvcf 
placed before the perfect participle of arv verb, forms tho per- 
fect tense ; /lai, the pluperfect ; shal- ryr rjill. the first future, 
and so oa. » 

ITowspeak each of the vevbo^f-jye, Aaic, vcclh^ smile, rule, txtA 
conquer^ in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the 
pronoun f before it ; thus, indicative mood. pros, tense, first 
pers. eing. I love ; imperf. I loved : perf 1 have loved : and so 
on, through all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conja- 

Tect part, of to be, referring to Johnson, Blair, and Lov/th. Lmiprhed at, perf. 
part, of to kug-;^ at, referring to the same, as been. Hod, active verb, in the 
psst tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. they. Essayed, pcif. part- 
referring to they. 

Call this '^ phuosophic.d parsing, on reasoning principles, accordin;; to tl;e 
nvieinal ia'.vs of natar*^^ anrt «f thought," and the piU will be swailowed, by 
.iT^atJtB csd 'hoJi- dupe?, wi^the greatest ok^o ie'."-ginaWe. 



CONJUGATION OF VBRB9. 145 

gation of the verb in the indicative mood, you will find no diffi- 
culty in conjugating it through those that follow, for in the con- 
jugation through all the moods, there is a great similarity. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense, or elliptical future. — Conjunctive form, 

Singtdar. Plural. 

1 . If I love, 1 . If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and 
you will observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form 
in the subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, 
does not vary its termination on account of number or person. 
This is called the conjunctive form of the verb ; but sometimes 
the verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in 
the same manner as it is in the indicative, with this exception, «/» , 
thoughy unless, or some other conjunction, is prefixed ; as, 
Indicative form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If Hove, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 
The following general rule will direct you when to use the 

tonjunctive form of the verb, and when the indicative. When a 
verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has o. future signi- 
hcation, or a reference to future time, the conjunctive foria 
should be used ; as, " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be thank- 
ful ;" " He will maintain his principles, though he losehis estate;" 
that is. If thou shall or sliotddst prosper ; though he shall or 
should lose, &c. But when a verb in the subjunctive mood, 
present tense, has no reference to future time, the indicative 
form ought to be used ; as, " Unless he means what he says, 
he is doubly faithless." By this you perceiv^e, that when a 
verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future 
eignification, an auxtUary is always understood before it, for 
which reason, in this construction, the termination of the princi- 

1 verb never varies; as, "He will net become eminent, 
unless he exert himself;" that is, unless he shall exert, or shotdd 
exert himself. This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be 
called the elliptical future. 

The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future 
ienses of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the 
same tenses of the indicative, with this exception ; in the sub 



146 ETrWOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

junctive mood, a conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to 
the verb. 

In the second future tense of this mood, the vorb is conju- 
gated thus. 

Second Future Tense, 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 

2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 
8. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 
Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will 

eadily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, 
thou love. or do ye or you love. 

Note. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in pait or future time, 
jerefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense. 

Potential Mood, 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or 

must love, must love, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

love. love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1, We might, could, would, 

should love, or should love, 

2. Thou raightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should love, 

love, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. or should love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1, Imay, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

loved, loved, 

I, Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or 
must have loved, must have loved, 

ie may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 
have lore have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 147 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have loved, or should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should havo 

have loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

By examinii.g carefully the conjugation of the verb through 
this mood, you will find it very easy ; thus, you will notice, that 
whenever any of the auxiliaries, mayj can, or must, is placed 
before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, present tense ; 
might, could, would, or should, renders it in the potential mood, 
imperfect tense ; may, can, or must have, the perfect tense ; and 
might, c^idd, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved 

Participles. 
Present or imperfect, Loving. 

Perfect or passive, , Loved. 

Compound, Having loved. 

Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with 
the imperfect tense ; yet the termer may, at all times, be distinguished from 
the latter, by the followmg rule : In composition, the imperfect tense of a 
verb always has a nominative, either expressed or implied : the perfect par- 
ticiple never lias. 

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when 
you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you will 
be able to conjugate all the regular verba in the English lan- 
guage, for they are all conjugated precisely in the same man- 
ner. By pursuing the following direction, you can, in a veiy 
short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the veib 
love through all the moods and tenses, in the first person sin- 
gular, with the pronoun / before it, and speak the Participles . 
thus, Indi.'.ative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love, 
imperf. tense, I loved; perf. tense, I have loved: and so on, 
through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the 
second pers. sing, with the pronoun thou before it, through all 
the moods and tenses ; thus, Indie, mood, pres. tense, second 
pers. sing, thou lovest ; imperf. tense, thou lovedsl : and so on, 
through the whole. After that, conjugate it in the third pers. 
smg. with he before it ; and then in the first pers. plural, with to* 
befora it, in like manner through all the moods and tcrwea. 



H8 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Although this mode of procedure may, at first, appear to be 
laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate 
to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, induces me 
to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate 
your progress. 

When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may 
conjugate the following verbs in the same manner ; which will 
enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb 
without hesitation : walkf hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate^ 
melt, shun, fail. 



LECTURE XII. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are those that do not form 
their imperfect tense and perfect participle by 
the addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, 



Pres. 


Tense, 


Imperf. Tense, 


Per/, or Pass. Peart, 


I write 




I wrote 


written 


I begin 




I began 


begun 


I go 




I went 


gone 


The following is a 


list of the irreindar verbs. 


Those marked with an R. 


are someti^nes conjugated regidarly. 




Pres. 


Tense. 


Imperf. Tense. 


Per/, or Pass. Part, 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




v/as 


been 


Arise 




arose 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke, R, 


awaked 


Bear, to 


bring forth 


bare 


born 


Bear, te 


carry 


bore 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beaten, beat 


B«gin 




began 


begun 


Bend 




bent 


bent 


Bereave 




bereft, R. 


bereft, R, 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Bind 




bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke 


broken 


Breed 




brea 


bred 


Bni>g 




brought 


brought 


Buna 




buat 


built 


Burst 




burst, R. 


burst, R. 


Buy 




bought 


bought 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



14ii 



Pres. tetise. 


Imperf. Terut. 


Per/, or Past. Fan, 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 
chid 


caught, R. 
chidden, chid 


Clude 


Choos© 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhete 


clave, R. 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


cleft or clove 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


ciothed 


clad, R. 


Come 


caine 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


rut 


cut 


Dare, to venhae 


durst 


dared 


])!irc, to cliaU-enge 


ReGFI AR 




Heal 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Dig 


dag, R. 


dug, R. 


Do 


did 


done 


Dr^w 


diew 


drawn 


Drive 


d rove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk, drank-* 


DweU 


dwek, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Tat 


eat, ate 


eaten 


Tall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fi^'ht 


fourrht 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


1 leo 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


Forsakp 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


^ott 


GUd 


gilt.R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hen- 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


l<n]t, R. 


knit, R. 


jTnow 


knew 


known 



» The men were drunk ; l e. m«t)ria.ted. The toasts were drank. 

j Gotten IS near'y obwlete. Its com{K)und forgotten, is still in good 



160 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Jmperf. Tense, 

laded 

laid 

led 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

loaded 

lost 

made 

met 

mowed 

paid 

put 

read 

rent 

rid 

rode 

rung, rang, 

rose 

rived 

ran 

sawed 

said 

aaw 

sought 

sold 

sent 

set 

shook 

shaped 

shaved 

sheared 

shed 

shone, R. 

showed 

shod 

shot 

shrunk 

shred 

shut 

sung, sang,t 

sunk, sankjt 

sat 

slew 

slept 

slid 

slung 

slunk 

slit, R. 

smote 

sowed 

spoke 



PerJ.(r Fass.Vttrt, 

laden 

laid 

led 

left 

lent 

let 

lain 

laden, R. 

lost 

made 

met 

mown, R. 

paid 

put 

read 

rent 

rid 

rode, ridden* 

rung 

risen 

riven 

run 

sawn, R. 

said 

seen 

soucfht 

soliT 

sent 

set 

shaken 

shaped, skapeis 

shaven, R. 

shorn 

shed 

shone, R, 

shown 

shod 

shot 

shrunk 

shred 

shut 

sung 

sunk 

set 

slain 

slept 

slidden 

slung 

slunk 

slit, R. 

smitten 

sown, R. 

spoken 






* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

\ Sang and sank should not be used in familiar stykC. 



UUIB6ULAR VERBS. 



151 



Prts. Teme, 


Jmperf, Tense. 


Per/. <yr Pau. PttrU 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten,* 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 
Stand 


sprung, sprang 
stood 


sprung 
stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


btick 


stuck 


stuck 


Stink 


stung 
stunk 


stung 
stunk 


Stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck or stricken 


String , 


"Strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Stro«r or strew 


strowed or strewed 


; strown, strowed 
or strewed 


Sweat 


swet, R, 


swet, R. 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


SweU 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Swim 


swum, swam 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take 


took 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, R. 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R, 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


IT 


wove 


woven 


wet 


wet, R. 


VVeep 


wept 


wept 


WTm 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Work 


WTOught, worked 


wrought, worked 


\Vriiig 


wrung 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written. 



In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs, are 
♦>ften impropeily terminated by t instead of ed; as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, 
Btopt, latcht." They should be, " learned, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched." 

You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs in a 
manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs : arisey hegin, 
btndy do, go, grow, run, lend, teach, write. Thus, to arise — In- 
dicative mood, pres. tense, first person, sing. I arise ; imperf. 
tense, I arose ; perf. tense, I have arisen, and so on, through all 
the moods, and all the tenses of each mood ; and then speak 
the participles : thus, pres. arising, perf. arisen, comp. having 

♦ Spitten is nearly obsolete. 



152 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb in the second 
per3on sing, through all the moods and tenses ; and then in the 
third person sing, and in the tirst pers. plural. After that, yoi; 
may {)roceed in the same manner with the words begin, bind, &c. 

Now read the XI. and XII. lectures four or five times over, 
and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be pre- 
pared to parse the following verbs in full ; and I presume, alJ 
the other parts of speech. Whenever you parse, you must i efer 
to the Compendium for definitions and rules, if you cannot re- 
peat them without. I will now parse a verb,, and describe all it<« 
properties by applying the definitions and rules accordin.n; to th» 
systematick order. 

" We could not accomplish the business.*' 

Could accomplish is a verb, a word which signifies to do— ac- 
tive, it expresses action — transitive, the action passes over from 
the nom. " we" to the object " business" — regular, it will form 
its imperfect tense of the indie, mood and perf. part, in ed — po- 
tential mood, it implies possibility or power — imperfect tense, it 
denotes past time however distant — first pers. plural, because the 
nom. " we" is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule. 4. JI verb 
must agree, &c. Conjugated — Indie, mood, present tense, firsi 
pers. sing. I accomplish ; imperfect tense, I accomplished ; per- 
fect, I have accomplished ; pluperfect, I had accomphshed ; and 
so on. — Speak it in the person of each tense through all the 
moods, and conjugate,in the same manner, every verb you parse. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

These exercises contcdn a complete variety of JSIoods and Tenses, 
I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson 
badly. John, do you write a good hand 1 Those ladies wrote a 
beautiful letter, but they did not despatch it. Have you seen the 
gentleman to whom I gave the book 1 He has gone. They 
had received the news before the messenger arrived. When 
will those persons return 1 My friend shall receive his reward 
He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. 

If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies 
he does not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished 
his work by midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, 
obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourself. Remem- 
ber what is told you. The physician may administer the medi- 
cme, but Providence orjly can bless it. I told him that he might 
go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, had he 
conducted himself properly; (that is, if he had conducted^ 
&c.) Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let 
me hear vou repeat what vou have learned. Study, diligently, 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 153 

Whatever task may be allotted to you. To correct the .spirit 
of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve. To die for 
one's country, is glorious. How can we become wise ? To 
f 9ek God is wisdom. What is true greatness 1 Active benevo- 
bnce. A good man is a great man. 

Note 1. jilan, following gi-eat, and lohat, in the last two examples, are 
nom. after is : Rule 21. To seek God, and to die for one^s country, are mem- 
bers of sentences, each put as the nom. case to u respectively: Rule 24. 
The verb to correct is the infinitive mood absolute : Note under Rule 23. 
May be allotted is a passive verb, agreeing with tvhich, the relative part of 
whoever. That, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with 
task ; and task is governed by study. Hear, following /cf^nd repeat, follow- 
ing hear, are in the infinitive mood without the sign fo, abe^rding to Rulk 
85. To recite is governed by prepare : Rule 23. Js told, is a passive verb, 
agreeing with which, the relative part ofiohatever ; and you, following, is go- 
verned by to understood : Note 1, under Rule 32. 

2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not expressed, 
yeu must say it represents some person or thing undci stood. 



LECTURE XIII. 

OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
I. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Before yeu attend to the following additianal remarks on th-e 
Auxiliary Verbs, you will do well to read again what is sjiid res- 
pecting them in lecture XI. page 140. The short account there 
given, and their application in conjugating verbs, have already 
made them quite familiar to you ; and you have undoubtedly 
observed, that, without their help, we cannot conjugate any verb 
in any of the tenses, except the present and imperfect of the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of the im- 
perative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, 
they are brought into requisition. 

Most of the auxihary veibs are defective in conjugation ; that 
is, they are used only in some of the moods and tenses ; and 
when unconnected with principal verbs, they are conjugated in 
the following manner : 

MAY. 

Pres. < Sing. 1 may, thou mayst, he may. 

Tense. ( Plur. We may, ye or you may, they may. 

Imperf. < Sing. I might, thou mightst, he might. 

Tense. ( Pliir. We might, ye or you might, th y might. 



154 ETYMOLOGY AND 8YN1AX. 

CAN. 

i les. ( Sing-. I can, thou canst, he can. 

Tense. ( Plur. We can, ye or you can, they can. 

Imperf. ( Sing. I could, thou couldst, he could. 

Tense. ( Plur. We could, ye or you could, they could. 

WILL. 

Pres. ( Sing. I will, thou wilt, he will. 

Tense. ( Plur. We will, ye or you will, they will. 

Imperf. ( Sing. I would, thou wouldst, he would. 

Tense. ( Plur. We would, ye or you would, they would 

SHALL. 

Pres. C Sing. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. 

Tense. { Plur. We shall, ye or you shall, they shaQ. 

Imperf. ( Sing. I should, thou shouldst, he should. 

Tense. \ Plur. We should, ye or you should, they should. 

TO DO. 

Pres. ( Sing. I do, thou dost or doest, he doth or deed 

Tense. ( Plur. We do, ye or you do, they do. 

Imperf. ( Sing-. I did, thou didst, he did. 

Tense. ( Plur. We did, ye or you did, they did. 

Participles. Pres. doing. Perf. done 

TO BE. 

PreR ( Sing. I am, thou art, he is. 

Tense. ( Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. 

Imperf. < Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 

Tense. ( Plur. We were, ye or you were, they wer«. 

Participles. Pres. being. Perf. been. 

TO HAVE. 

Prea. ( Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has. 

Tense. ( Plur. We have, ye or you have, they have. 

Inperf. { Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had. 

Tense. \ Plur. We had, ye or you had, they had. 

Participles. Pres. having. Perf. had. 

Do, be, have, and loill, are sometimes used as principal verbs 
and when employed as such, do, be, and have, may be conjuga 
ted, by the help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and 
tenses. 

Do. The different tenses of do, in the several moods, are 
thus formed : Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I 
do ; imperfect tense, I did ; perf. I have done ; pluperfect, 1 
had done ; first future, I shall or will do ; sec. fut. I shall hav<? 
done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If I do ; imperf. if 1 
did ; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, pres 
I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do ; perf 
to have done. Participles, pres. doing ; perf. done ; compound, 
naving done 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 155 

Ha^^. Have is in great demand. No verb can be conju- 
gated through all tl>e moods and tenses without it. Have.^ when 
used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the past ttinses, 
and becomes an auxiliary to itself; thus, Indie, mood, pres. 
tense, first pers. sing. I have ; imp. tense, I had ; perf. I have 
had ; pluperf. I had had ; first fut. I shall or will have ; sec. fut. 
I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if I have ; imperf. if I 
had ; peif. if I have had ; pluperf. if I had had ; first fut. if I 
shall or will have ; sec. fut. if I shall have fead. Imper. mood, 
have thou. Potential, present, I may, cam, or must have ; 
imperf. I might, could, would, or should have ; perf. I may, can, 
or must have had ; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should 
have had. Infinitive, present, to have ; perf. to have had. 
Participles, pres. having ; perf. had ; compound, having had. 

Be. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation 
of the irregular, neuter verb, Be, which Ls an auxiliary whenever 
It is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in 
every other situation, it is a principal verb. 

To Be. — Indicative Mood. 

Pren. ( Sing. I am, thou art, he, she, or it is. 

Tense. ( Pliir. We are, ye or you are, they ai-e. 

Imperf. ( Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 

Tense. ( Plur. We were, ye or you werL^ they were. 

Perf. ( Sing. I have been, thou hast been, he hath or has been. 

Tense. ( Plur. We have been, ye or you have been, they have been. 

Phip. < Sing. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. 

Tense. ( Plur. We had been, ye or you had been, they had been. 

First ( Sing. I shall or w\\\ be, thou shalt or wilt be, he shall m' wilJ be. 

Fut. T. ( Plur. We shall or will be, you shall or will be, they shall or will be. 

fiecond ( Sing. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. 

FuU T. ( Phir. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 



se. I 



IfIbe,ifthon be, if he be. 



Tense. \ Plur. If we be, if ye or you be, if they be. 

Imperf. ( Sing. If I were, if thou wert, if he were. 

Tense. { Plur. If we were, if ye or you were, if they were. 

The neuter verb to be, and all passive verbs, have two forma 
m the impe^Tect tense of this mood, as well as in the present ; 
therefore, the following rule may serve to direct you in the 
proper use of each form. When the sentence implies doubt, 
supposition, &c. and the neuter verb be, or the passive verb, is 
used with a reference to present or future time, and is either 
followed or preceded by another verb in the imperfect of the 
potential mood, the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense must 
be employed ; as, " //he were here, we should rejoice together;" 



156 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

" She might go,.werc she so disposed." But when there is no 
reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither fol- 
lowed nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the 
indicative form of the imperfect tense must be used ; as, " Jfhf 
teas ill, he did not make it known ;" " Whether he was absen' 
or present, is a matter of no consequence." The general riin 
for using the conjunctive form of the verb, is presented on pag« 
145. See, also, page 135. 

The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive mood, are 
conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the indica- 
tive. The second future is conjugated thus : 

Second < Sing. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall, &c. 
Fut. T. ( Ptur. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c. 

Imperative Mood. 

Pres. < Sing. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 

Tonse. ( Plur. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

Potential Mood. 

{Sing. I may, can, or must be, thou mayst, canst, or must be, ho 
may, can, er must be. 
Plur. We may, can, or must be, ye or you may, can, or must be, 
they may, can, or must be. 
Iniperf. i Sirig. 1 might, could, would, or should be, thou mightst, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur. We might, could, would, or should be, you might, &c. 
Perf. < Sing. I may, can, or must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. ( Ptur. We may, can, m- must have been, you may, can, or must, &c. 
Pluper. ^ Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been, thou, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur. We might, could, would, oi- should have been, you, &c. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. 

Participles. 
Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been. 
This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by 
far the most important verb in our language, for it is more fre- 
quently used than any other ; many rules of syntax depend on 
constructions associated with it, and, without its aid, no passive 
verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make your- 
self perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you proceed 
any farther. 

II. PASSIVE VERBS. 

The cases of nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and 
discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has 
frequently engaged our attention ; emd, now, in introducing to 
your notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both in- 
teresting and profitable to present one more view of the nomina- 
tive case. 



i 



PASSIVE VERBS. 157 

Every sentence, you recollect, must have one finite verb, or 
more than one, and one nominative, either expressed or implied, 
tor, without them, no sentence can exist. 

The nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the 
verb makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nomina- 
tives, active, passive, and neuter. 

The nominative to an active verb, is active, because it produ- 
ces an action, and the nominative to b. passive verb, is passive, be 
cause it receives or endures the action expressed by the verb ; for, 

A Passive Verb denotes action received or en- 
dured by the person or thing which is the nom- 
inative ; as, " The boy is beaten by his father." 

You perceive, that the nominative boy, in this example, is not 
represented as the actor, but as the object of the action express- 
ed by the verb is beaten ; that is, the boy receives or endures the 
action performed by his father ; therefore boy is a passive nom- 
mative. And you observe, too, that the verb is beaten denotes 
the action received or endured by the nominative ; therefore is 
beaten is a passive verb. 

If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, 
oecause he performed or produced the action ; but if T sav .Tol^^ 
vms kicked by the horse, John is a passive ii^muiaiive, oecause 
ne received or endured the actioii- 

The nominative tO a neuter verb, is neuter, because it does 
not prod'ice an action nor receive one ; as, John sits in the chair. 
Joan IS here connected with the neuter verb sits, which express- 
es simply the state of being of its nominative, therefore John is 
a neuter nominative. 

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nomina- 
tives by a few examples. 

I. Of Active Nominatives ; as, " The boy beats the dog ; 
The lady sings ; The ball rolls ; The man walks." 

II. Of Passive Nominatives ; as, *' The boy is beaten ; The 
lady is loved ; The ball is rolled ; The man was killed." 

ill. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as, *' The boy remains idle ; 
The lady is beautiful ; The ball lies on the ground ; The man 
Uves in town." 

You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs 

Passive Verbs are called regular vrhen they 
end in ed ; as, was loved ; was conquered. 

All Passive Verbs are formed by adding the 
perfect participle of an active-transitive verb, to 
the neuter verb to be 

14 



158 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb 
after this neuter verb 6e, in any mood or tense, you will have a 
passive verb in the same mood and tense that the verb be would 
be in if the participle were not used ; as, I am slighted ; I was 
slighted ; He will be slighted ; If I be slighted ; I may, can, or 
must be slighted, SfC. Hence you perceive, that when you shall 
have learned the conjugation of the verb 5c, you will be able to 
conjugate any passive verb in the English language. 

The regular passive verb to be loved, which is formed by add - 
ing the perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to be, is con 
jugated in the following manner : 

To Be Loved. — Indicative Mood. 
Pres. ( Sing. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. We are loved, ye or you are loved, they are loved. 
Imperf. ( Sing. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. We were loved, ye ro you were loved, they were loved. 
Perfect ( Sing. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. 

Pluper. ( Sing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c 
Tense. ( Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, Sac, 
First ( Sing. I shall or will be loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he, &c. 
Future. ( Plur. We shall or will be loved, you shall or will be loved, they, &* 
Second ( Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c. 
Future. ( Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Pres. ( Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. 
Imperf. ( Sing. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. 
This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to 6c 
Imperative Mood. 
Pre«. ( Sing. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. 

Potential Mood. 
Pres. < Sing. I may, can, or must be loved, thou mayst, canst, or must, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur, We may, can, or must be loved, you may, can, or must, &c. 
Imperf. ( Sing, I might, could, would, or should be loved, thou mightst, &c. 
Tense. I Plur. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye or you, &c. 
Perfect < Sing. I may, can, or must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. ( Plur. We may, can, or must have been loved, you may, can, &c. 

(Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been loved, thou 
mightst, couldst, would st, or shouldst have been loved, &c. 
. W..WW. Plur. We might, could, would, or should have been loved, you 
( might, could, would, or should have been loved, they, &c. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Tr€s. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tease. To have been loved. 
Participles. 
Present, Being loved. Perfect or Passive, Loved. 
Compound, Ha\'ing been loved. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 159 

Note. This conjugation of the passive verb to be Idved, ia caU«d tho 
passive voice of the regular active- transitive verb to love. 

Now conjugate the following passive verbs ; that is, speak 
them in the first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all 
the moods, and speak the participles ; '* to be loved, to be reject- 
ed, to be slighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to b© beaten, to 
be sought, to be taken." 

Note 1. When the perfect participle of an intransitive verb is joined to 
the neuter verb to be, the combination is not a passive verb, but a neuter verb 
in a passive form; as, " He is gone ; The birds are flown; The boy is gro^vn; 
My friend is arrived.'''' The following mode of construction, is, in general, to 
be preferred ; " He has gone ; The birds have flovt^n ; The boy has grown ; 
My friend has arrived." 

2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present 
participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its variations ; as, mstead 
of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c, we may say, I am teaching, thou 
art teaching, he is teaching, &c. ; and, instead of, I taught, &c. ; I was teach- 
ing, &c. This mode of conjugation expresses the contmuation of an action 
or state of being ; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and 
conlributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the present 
participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two 
words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated an active verb, either 
transitive or intransitive, as the case may be ; as, " I am writing a letter ; 
He is walking :" and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus 
employed, they term the combination a neuter verb ; as, " I am sitting ; He 
is standing." Others, in constructions Uke these, parse each word separately. 
Either mode may be adopted. 

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Defective Verbs are those which are used 
only in some of the moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

Pres. Tense, Imperf. Tense. Perfect or Passive Participle 

is loanting. 

May, might. 

Can, could. 

Will, would. 

Shall, should. 

Must, must. 

Ought, ought. 

quoth. 

Note. Must and ought are not varied. Ought and quoth are never used 
as auxiliaries. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which verb determines its tense. Ought is in the present tense when the in- 
finitive following it is in the present ; as, " He aught to do it ;" and ought is 
in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive ; as, " Ho 
ought to have done it." 

Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, 
you may read over the last three lectures carefully and atten- 
tively ; and as soon as you become acquainted with all that has 
been presented, you will understand nearly all the principles 
and regular constructions of our language. In parsing a verb, 



160 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

or any other part of speech, be careful to pursue the systematick 
order, and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar 
with all the moods and tenses. 

" He should have been punished before he committed tha 
atrocious deed." 

Should have been punished is a verb, a word that signifies to 
do — passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom, 
— it is formed by adding the perfect part, punished to th€ neuter 
verb to be — regular, the perf. part, ends in ed — potential mood, 
it implies obligation, &c. — pluperfect tense, it denotes a past 
act which was prior to the other past time specified by " com- 
mitted" — third pers. sing. num. because the nOm. " he" is witft 
which it agrees : Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. — Conju- 
gated, Indie, mood, pros, tense, he is punished ; imperf. tense, 
he was punished ; perf. tense, he has been punished ; and so 
on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak 
the participles. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Columbus discovered America. America was discovered 
by Columbus. The preceptor is writing a letter. The letter 
is written by the preceptor. The work can be done. The 
house would have been built ere this, had he fulfilled his promise. 
[f 1 be beaten by that man, he will be punished. Young man, 
if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. Being 
ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading 
Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become 
more ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honoured for 
his benevolent deeds. This ought ye to have done. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
All the most important principles of the science, together with 
many of the rules, have now been presented and illustrated, 
But before you proceed to analyze the following exercises, you 
may turn over a few pages, and you will find all the rules pre- 
sented in a body. Please to examine them critically, and parse 
the examples under each rule and note. The examples, yuu will 
notice, are given to illustrate the respective rules and notes, 
under which they are placed ; hence, by paying particmar at- 
tention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to com- 
prehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes. 
As soon as you become familiarly acquainfed with all the de- 
fmitions, so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit 
them in parsing ; but you must always apply the rules of Syn- 
tax. When you parse without applying the definitions, you may 
proceed in the following manner : 



VERBS. — rARSINO. 161 

** Mercy is the true badge of nobility." 

Mercy is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, 
wngular number, and in the nominative case to " is :" Rule 3. 
The nominative case governs the verb. 

Is is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with " mercy," accord- 
ing to Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. 

The is a definite article, belonging to '^ badge" in the singu- 
lar number : Rule 2. The definite article the, &c. 

True is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to 
the noun "badge :" Rule IS. Adjectives belong, &c. 

Badge is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, and in the nominative case after "is," and put by ap- 
position with " mercy," according to Rule 21. The verb to be 
may have the same case after it as before it. 

Of is a preposition, connecting " badge" and " nobility," and 
showing the relation between them. 

JVobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fern, gender, third 
person, sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" Rule 
31. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. 

What I forfeit for myself is a trifle ; that my indiscretions 
should reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. 

Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the 
duke of Northumberland. 

King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and 
people of Rome as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. 

Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts ; and 
from what is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to 
have proved, what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of vio- 
lence, cruelty, and blood. 

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits 
know. 

He that formed the ear, can he not hear ? 

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

Note 1. Learn, in the first of the preceding examples, is a transitive verb, 
because the action passes over from the nom. you understood, to the rest of 

e sentence for its object : Rule 24. In the next example, that my indiscre- 
tions should rench my posterity, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to 
the verb wounds, according to the same Rule. 

2. The noun sacrifice, in the third example, is nom. after the active-intran- 
sitive verb fell: Role 22. The noun proprietors, in the next sentence, is 
in the objective case, and put by apposition with senate and people : Rule 7, 
or governed by consider, understood, according to Rule 35. 

3. In the fifth example, ichat. following proved, is a compound relative. 

14* 



1^^ ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Thing, the antf cedent ^art, is in the nam. case after to he, understood, ap ^ 
put by apposition with he, according to Rule 21, and Note. Which, th« 
relative part, is in the obj. case after to be exprei&sed, aild ^ut by apposition 
with him, according to the same Rule. Man is in the obj. case, put by ap- 
position with tohich: Rule 7. The latter part of the sentence may he lice" 
rally rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved to be that base char- 
acter which the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a inan of violence, cruelty, 
and blood. The antecedent part of the first what, in the next sentence, is 
governed by hides ; and which, the relative part, is governed by hiow under- 
stood. The antecedent part of the second ivhat, is governed by hides under- 
stood, and the relative part is governed by fcnoto expressed. 

4. The first he, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of some, nofi^. 
to can hear understood ; but Mr. N. K. Smith, a distinguished and acute 
grammarian, suggests the propriety of rendering the sentence thus ; " He 
that formed the ear, formed it to hear; can he not hear?" The first he, in the 
last example, is redundant ; yet the construction is Sometimes admissible, 
for the expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him heat 
who hath ears to hear ;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. Smith, 
the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus y " He that hath 
ears, hath ears to near ; let him hear." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies* 

1. " The wall is three /eei high." 

2. " His son is eight i/ears old." 

3. " My knife is worth a shilling.''^ 

4. ^* She is worth /im and all his connexions." 

5. " He has been there three times." 

6. " The hat cost ten dollars." 

7. " The load weighs a tun." 

8. " The fepaf measures ninety /ed." 

Remarks. — Anomaly is derived from the Greek, a, without, and ontalos^ 
shiAilar ; that is, without similarity. Some give its derivation thus ; anomaly, 
from the Latin, ab, from, or out of, and norma, a rule, Or law, means an met- 
Imo ; a mode of expression that departs from the rules, laws, or general 
usages of the language ; a construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, 
It is a general rule of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are com- 
pared by adding r, or er, and st, or est, to the positive degree ; but good, bet' 
ter, best ; bad, toorse, worst, are not compared according to the general rule. 
They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns is generally 
formed by adding s to the singular : man, men; woman, women; child, chil- 
dren; penny, pence, are anomalies. The use of nexos, means, alms, and 
amends, in the singular, constitutes anomalies. Anomalous constructions 
are correct according to custom ; but, as they are departures from general 
rules, by them they cannot be analyzed. 

An idioin, Latin idioma, a construction peculiar to a language, may be an 
inomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expfession Which is not an anomaly, 
can be analyzed. 

Feet and years, in the 1, and 2, examples, are not in the nominative aBer 
is, according to Rule 21, because they are not in apposition with the respec- 
tive nouns that precede the Verb ; but the constructions are anomalous ; and, 
therefore, no rule can be applied to analyze them. The same idieas, how- 
ever, can be conveyed by a legitimate construction which can be analyzed , 
thus, " The height of the wal! is three feet;'* "The a^e of my son is eight 
tfearsJ" 



i^OMALIES. — rARSING. 163 

/i-q ^tnomaJy, wher a'0«rlained to be such, is easily disposed of; but some- 
ti~neb \i is very difficult to decide whether a construction is anomalous or 
kioi. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally considered anomalies ; 
\Mt if wo supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in doing, the associated 
words which modern refinement has dropped, they will cease to be anoma- 
hes ; thus, "My knife is of the worth of a. shilling ;" " — of the worth o/him," 
&c. " He has been there for three times ;" as we say, " I was unwell for 
three days, after I arrived ;" or, " I was unwell three days," Thus it appears, 
that by tracing back, /or a few centuries, what the merely modern English 
scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be discovered, 
■which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly. 

On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living lan- 
QuiLge, the most able philologists can never be agreed ; because many usages 
will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, be disposed 
of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a sentence may be 
treated as an anomaly ; by others who contend for, and supply, an ellipsis, 
the same sentence may be analyzed according to the ellipsis supplied ; whilst 
others, who deny both the elliptical and anomalous character of the sentence, 
construct a rule by which to analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the 
principle contained in that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inas- 
much as it requires us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the 
language, appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It ap- 
pears to be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility. 

The verbsjcosf, weighs, and measures, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th examples, 
may be considered as transitive. See remarks on resemble, have, oxon, &c., 
page 56. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "And Grod said, ^ Let there be light,* and there was 
light." " Let UB make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." 
" Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre," 

2. " Be it enacted." " Be it remembered." " Blessed be he 
"hat blesseth thee ; and cursed be he that curseth thee." "My 
soul, turn from them : — turn we to survey," &c. 

3. " JMethinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to re- 
ceive him." " Meihought I was incarcerated beneath the 
mighty deep." " I was there just thirty i/ears ag-o." 

4. " Their laws and their manners, generally speaking, were 
extremely rude." ^^Considering their means, they have effected 
much." 

5. "Ah me ! nor hope nor life remains." 

" J\Ie miserable ! which way shall I fly ?" 

6. ^^ O happiness ! our being's end and aim ! 

Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whatever, thy name , 
That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die." — 

fne verb let, in the idiomatick examples under number 1, has no nomina 
tive specified, and is left apphcable to a nominative of the first, secorvd, or 
third person, and of either number. Every action necessarily depends on an 
agent or moving cause ; and hence it follows, that the verb,in sucjh construc- 
tions, has a rioniinative understood ; but as that nominative is not particu- 
zriy pdnied out, the constructions raav be considered anomalouB. 



164 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Instead of saying, "Let it [to] be enacted ;" or, "It isor shall be enacted ;" 
•' Let him [to] be blessed ;" or, " He shall be blessed ;" " Let us turn to sur 
vey," &c. ; the verbs, be enacted, be blessed, turn, &c. according to an idiom of 
our language, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with 
a nomina-tive of the first or third person. 

The phrases, methinks and methought, are anomaHes, in which the objec- 
tive pronoun me, in the first person, is used in place of a nominative, and 
takes a verb after it in the third person. Him was anciently used in the 
same manner ; as, " him thute, him thought." There was a period wher 
these constructions were not anomalies in our language. Formerly, what 
we call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the sameman- 
ner as our present nominatives are.- ^go is a contraction of agon e, the past 
part, of to go. Before this participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun 
years preceding it, was in the nominative case absolute ; but now the con- 
struction amounts to an anomaly. The expressions, " generally speaking," 
and " considering their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and ano- 
malous, the subjects to the participles not being specified. 

According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs an^pre 
positions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them ; and this 
requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say, that these parts 
of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, 57, and 94. The same 
principle applies to the interjection, " Interjections require the objective case 
of a pronoun of the first person after them; but the nominative of a. nonn or 
pronoun of the second or third person ; as, " Ah me ! Oh thoti ! my country .'" 
To say, then, that interjections require particular cases after them, is syno- 
nymous with saying, that they govern those cases ; and this ofiice of the in- 
terjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the Latin, 
and many other languages. In the" examples under number 5, the first m^ 
is in the objective after " ah," and the second me, after ah understood ; thus, 
" Ah miserable me !" according to Note 2, under Rule 5. — JFZajopinMs, under 
number 6, is nom. independent; Rule 5, or in the nom. after O, according 
to this Note. The principle contained in the note, proves that every noun 
of the second person is in the nomhiative case ; for, as the pronoun of the 
second person, in such a situation, is always nominative, which is shown b^ 
i\s form, it logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, af- 
though it has no form to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case 
as th^ pronoun. " Good, pleasure, ease, content, that,'''* the antecedent pan 
of " whatever," and which, the relative part, are nom. after art understood : 
Rule 21, and name is nom. to be understood. 

The second line may be rendered thus ; Whether thou art good, or 
whether thou art pleasure, SfC. or be thy name that [thmg] which [ever 
thing] it may be : putting be in the imperative, agreeing with name in th« 
third person. Something is nominative after art understood. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "All were well but the stranger.^^ "I saw nobody but 
the stranger.''^ " All had returned but he." " None but the 
brave deserve the fair." "The thing they can't but purpose, 
they postpone." " This life, at best, is but a dream." " It 
affords but a scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he but touch 
the hills, they will smoke." "Man is but a reed, floating oia 
the current of time." 

2. " Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content." 

3. " Open your hand wide.'' " The apples boil soft" "The 



i-NOMALIES. PARSING. 

purest claj is that which burns white," " Drink deep, or tasi 
flot the Pierian spring." 

4. " JVhat thous^h the swelling surge thou see ?" &c. " \Miat 
i/the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread 1" &c. 

Rf.marks. — According to the principle of analysis assumed hy many of 
our most critical pliilologists, hut is alioays a disjunctive conjunction ; and 
agreeably to tlie same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a preposition, 
would lead to errour. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They maintain, that 
its legitimate and undcviating office is, to join on a member of a sentence 
which expresses opposition of meaning, and thereby forms an exception to, or 
takes from the universality of, the proposition contained in the preceding 
member of the sentence. That it sustains its true character as a conjuno>- 
tion in all the examples uiKler number 1, will be shown by the following 
resolution of them. — " All were well but the stranger [loas not well.''''] " 1 
saw nobody but [/ sais] the stranger." " None deserve the fair but the 
brave [deserve the/air.''^] " They postpone the thing which [they ought todo^ 
and do not,] but which [thing] they cannot avoid purposing to do." "This 
life, at best, [is not a reality,] but it is a dream. It [affords not unbounded JruU 
tion] but it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he touch the hills, 
bttt exert no greater potoer upon them, they will smoke;" — "If he exert no 
greater poxoer upon the hills, but [be-out this fact] if he touch them, they will 
smoke." " Man is not a stable being, but he is a reed, floating on the current 
of time." This method of analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, 
is too much on the plan of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their 
rage for ancient constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern 
associated meaning and application . of this word. It appears to me to be 
more consistent with the modern use of the word, to consider it an adverb in 
constructions like the following: " If he but {only, merely) touch the hills 
they will smoke." 

Except and near, in examples like the following, are generally construed 
as prepositions: "All went except kim;" "She stands near them." But 
many contend, that when we employ but instead of except, in such construe- 
lions, a nominative should follow: " All went but he [did not go."] On this 
point and many others, custom is variable; but the period will doubtless ar 
rive, when but, worth, and like, will be consi(Jered prepositions, and, in con 
structions like the foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case, 
This will not be the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis 
after these words is entirely dropped. 

Poverty, under number 2, is governed by the preposition notioithstanding^ 
Rule 31. The adjectives MJtJe, soft, white, and deep, under number 3, not 
only express the quality of nouns, but also quahfy verbs : Note 4, under 
Rule 18. — What,\n the phrases "what though" and "what if," is an interro- 
gative in the objective case, and governed by the verb ?n«(fe?'s understood, or 
by some other verb ; thus, " What matters it — what dost thou fear, though 
thou see the swelling surge ?" " What would you think, if the foot, which 
IB oruamed to tread the dust, aspired to be the head ?" 

in me following examples, the same word is used as several 
parts of speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to com- 
prehend the meaning, and by supplying what is understood, you 
will be able to analyze them correctly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
I like what you dislike. 
Every creature loves its like. 
Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. 



I 

166 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. i 

Chanty, like the sun, brightens every object around ii 

Thought flies swifter than light. ! 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. [ 

Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. 

I was happy to hail him as my friend. 

Hail! bePL'-steous stranger of the wood. 

The more I examine the work, the better I like it. 

Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 

We may expect a calm after a storm. 

To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 

Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones 

Much money has been expended. 

Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. 

It is much better to give than to receive. 

Still water runs deep. 

He laboured to still the tumult. 

Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. 

They wrong themselves as well as their friends. 

I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Pars- 
ing in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of 
mental exertion tb m parsing in prose, will be found a more de- 
lightful and profitable exercise. In this kind of analysis, in 
order to come at the meaning of the author, you will find it 
necessary to transpose his language, and supply what is under- 
stood ; and then you will have the literal meaning in prose. 
EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Apostrophe to Hope. — Campbell. 
Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, 
Thy joyo/ss youth began : — but not to fade. — 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; 
Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile ! 

Transposed, 
Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime 
spheres pealed their first notes to sound the march of time : — 
but it began not to fade. — Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over 
the ruins, when all the sister planets shall have decayed ; and 
thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile, when wrapt 



POETRY TRANSPOSED. — PARSING. It 

in flames, the realms of ether glow, and Heaven^s last thunder 
shakes the world below. 

Address to Adversity. — Gray. 

Daughter of heaven, relentless power. 

Thou tamer of the human breast. 

Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, 

The bad affright, afflict the best ! 

The gen'rous spark extinct revive ; 

Teach me to love and to forgive ;s 

Exact my own defects to scan : 

What others are to feel ; and know myself a man. 
Transposed. 
Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the 
human breast, whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright 
the bad, and afflict the best! Revive thou in me the generous, 
extinct spark ; and teach thou me to love others, and to forgive 
them ; and teach thou me to scan my own defects exactly, or 
critically : and teach thou me that which others are to feel ; 
and make thou me to know myself to be a man. 

(Address to the Almighty. — Pope. 
What conscience dictates to be done, 
Or warns me not to do. 
This teach me more than hell to shun, 
That more than heav'n pursue. 
Transposed. 
O God, teach thou me to pursue that {the thing) which con- 
•cience dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven ; 
and teach thou me to shun this {the thing) which conscience 
K^ams me not to do, more cautiously than I would shun hell. 
Trials of Virtue. — Merrick. 
For see, ah! see, while yet her ways 

With doubtful step I tread, 
A hostile world its terrours raise, 

Its snares delusive spread. 
O how shall I, with heart prepared, 

Those terrours learn to meet ? 
How, from the thousand snares to guard 
My unexperienced feet ? 

Transposed. 
For see thou, ah ! see thou a hostile world to raise its ter- 
rours, and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares, 
vhile I yet tread her (virtue^a) ways with doubtful steps. 
O bow shall I learn to meet those terrours with a prepared 



168 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

neart? How shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from 
the thousand snares of the world? 

The Morning in Summer. — Thompson. 
Short is the doubtful empire of the night ; 
And soon, observant of approaching day, 
The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, 
At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east, 
Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow, 
And from before the lustre of her face 
WTiite break the clouds away. 

Transposed. 
The doubtful empire of the night is short ; and the meek 
eyed morn, [which is the) mother of dews, observant of ap- 
proaching day, soon appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the 
dappled east, till the widening glow spreads far over ether, and 
he white clouds break away from before the lustre of her face 

Nature Bountiful. — Akenside. 

Nature's care, to all her children just, 

With richest treasures, and an ample state, 
Endows at large whatever happy man 
Will deign to use them. 

Transposed. 
JNature's care, which is just to all her children, largely en- 
dows, with richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man 
who will deign to use them. 

Note. What, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent 
part is gov. by ieach understood ; and the relative part by to feel expressed. 
To shun and to purme, in the third example, are in the infinitive mood, gov. 
by than, according to a Note under Rule 23. Faint and from, in the 5th 
example, are adverbs. An adverb, in poetry, is often written ir the lorm of 
an adjective. Whatever, in the last sentence, is a compouna pron. and is 
equivalent to that and loho. That is an adj. pron. beiongmg to " man ;" who 
IS nom. to " will deign ;" and everja excluded from the sentence in sense. 
See page 1 1 3. Parse these examples as they are transposed, and you will 
lind the analysis very easy. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING 

Gold, not Genuine Wealth. 
Where, thy true treasure X Gold says, *' not in me ;" 
4nd, " not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor. 

Transposed. 
W^here is thy true treasure 1 Gold says, " It is not in me ;*' 
and the Diamond says, " It is not in me." Gold is poor. 
Source of Friendship. — Dr. Young. 
Lorenzo, pride repress ; nor hope to find 
A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. 



POETRY TRANSPOSED. 169 

Transposed. 
Lorenzo, repress thou pride ; nor hope thou to find a friend, 
only in him who has already found a friend in thee. 
True Greatness. — Pope. 
Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 

Transposed. 

That man is great indeed, let him io reign like unto good 
\urelius, or let him to bleed hke unto Socrates, who obtains 
noble ends by noble means ; or that man is great indeed, who, 
failing to obtain noble ends by noble means, smiles in exile or in 
chains. 

Invocation. — Pollok 
Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom 
All thmgs seem as they are, inspire my song ; 
My eye unseal e : me what is substance teach ; 
And shadow what, while I of things to come. 
As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase 
Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. 
Transposed. 

Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom all things seem to be 
^ as they really are, inspire thou my song ; and unscale thou mr 
Y> eyes : teach thou to me the thing which is substance ; and teacn 
s thou to me the thing which is shadow, while I sing of things which 
are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehearsing. 
Grant thou to me thought and phraseology which shall severely 
sift out the whole idea. 

The Voyage of Life. 
How few, favoured by ev'ry element. 
With swelling sails make good the promised port, 
With all their wishes freighted ! Yet ev'n these, 
Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain. 
Free from misfortune, not from nature free. 
They still are men ; and when is man secure ? 
As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years 
Beats down their strength ; their numberless escapes 
In ruin end : and, now, their proud success 
But plants new terrours on the victor's brow. 
What pain, to quit the world just made their own 1 
Their nests so deeply downed and built so high !— 
Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. 
15 



170 etymology and syntax. 

Transposed. 

How few persons, favoured by every element, safely make 
the promised port with swelling sails, and with all their wishes 
freighted ! Yet even these few persons who do safely make the 
promised port with all their wishes freighted, soon complain. 
Though they are free from misfortunes, yet {though and yet, 
corresponding conjunctions, form only one connexion) they are 
not free from the course of nature, for they still are men ; and 
when is man secure t Time is as fatal to Lim, as a storm is to 
the mariner. — The rush of years beats down their strength , 
{that is, the strength of these feiv ;) and their numberless escapes 
end in ruin : and ihen their pi-oud success only plants new 
terrours on the victor's biow. What pain it is to them to quit 
the world, just as they have made it to be their own world ; 
when their nests are built so high, and when they are downed so 
deeply! — They who build beneath the stars, build too low for 
their own safety. 

Reflections on a Scull. — Lord Byron. 

Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. 

Is that a temple, where a God may dwell 1 
Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ! 

Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, 

Its chambers desolate, and portals foul : 

Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall. 

The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. 

Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, 

The gay recess of wisdom and of wit. 

And passion's host, that never brooked control. 

Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, 
People this lonely tower, this tenement refit ? 
Transposed. 

Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is 
that a temple, where a God may dwell 1 Why, even the worm 
at last d'.adains her shattered cell ! Look thou on its broken 
arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate 
chambers, and on its foul portals : — yes, this, skull was once 
ambition's airy hall ; {it tvas) the dome of thought, the palace 
of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless 
hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, 
which never brooked control. Can all the works which saints, 
or sages, or sophists have ever written, rej>eople this loneiv 
tower, or can they refit this tenement ? 

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select piece* 
froirt the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. ' 



DERIVATION. 171 

•lave already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more 
fmmediateiy into requisition the reasoning faculties, than pars- 
ing in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your 
jrrogress ; therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in 
Ihis way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previ- 
ous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought 
always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just 
oresented ; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false 
syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lec- 
tures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in your 
mind. 



LECTURE XIV. 

OF DERIVATION. 

At the commencement of lecture II. T informed you that Ety- 
mology treats, 3diy, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, 
important as it is, cannot be very extensively treated in an ele- 
mentary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding lec- 
tures, it has been frequently agitated ; and now I shall offer a 
few more remarks, which will doubtless be useful in illustrating 
some of the various methods in which one word is derived from 
another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn back 
and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, 
and in the Philosophical Notes. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," 
comes " lover ;" from " to visit, visiter ;" from " to survive, 
fiurviver," &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 
de^'^'-mine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear» 
to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to 
ect/' &c. 



172 ETYMOLOGY AND 8YWTA1C. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from 
adverbs ; as, from the noun salt, comes " to salt ;" from the ad- 
jective warm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward, " to 
forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the 
vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;'» 
sometimes by adding en ; as, from " length, to lengthen ;" espe- 
cially to adjectives ; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following man 
ner : adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by add 
ingy; as, from "Health, nealthy; wealth, wealthy; might, 
mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which anything is made, 
are derived from nouns by adding en ; as, from '* Oak, oaken , 
wood, wooden; wool, woollen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by 
adding ful ; as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruit- 
ful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
are derived from nouns by adding some ; as, from " Light, 
lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding 
less; as, from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, caieless; 
joy, joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by add- 
ing ly ; as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, court- 
ly," &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from 
nouns by adding ish to them ; which termination when added 
lo adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, 
" White, whitish ;" i. e. somewhat white. When added to 
nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, 
" Child, childish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding 
the termination able ; and those adjectives signify capacity ; as, 
" Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding 
the termination «ess ; as, " White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness ;" 
sometimes by adding th or t, and making a small change in 
some of the letters ; as, " Long, length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the 
adjectives from which they are derived ; as, from " base," 
comes "basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from ** able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one 



1 



DERIVATION. 173 

another, that it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to 
enumerate them. The primitive words of every language are 
very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A 
few more instances only can be given here. 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the 
terminations hood or head^ ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, tan, ment, 
and age. 

Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character 
or qualities ; as, *' Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. 

Nouns ending in ship, are those that signify office, employ- 
ment, state, or condition ; as, " Lordship, stewardship, part- 
nership," &c. Some nouns m ship are derived from adjectives ; 
as, " Hard, hardship," &c. 

Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, " Slavery 
foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from 
adjectives; as, " Brave, bravery," &c? 

Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote dominion, 
jurisdiction, or condition ; as, " Bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, 
dukedom, freedom," &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; 
as, '* Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in ment and 
age, come generally from the French, and commonly signify 
the act or habit ; as, " Commandment," " usage." 

Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjec 
tives, and denote character or habit ; as, " Drunk, drunkard ; 
dote, dotard." 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not 
many. They are formed by adding the terminations kin, ling, 
ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, gos- 
ling ; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; cock, cockerel," &c. 
OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES. 
I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of Latin 
and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in Englisli as prefixes. 
By carefully studying their signification, you will be better qualified to un- 
derstand the meaning of those words into the composition of which they en- 
ter, and of which they form a material part. 

I. LATIN PREFIXES. 
^, ab, abs — signify from or away ; as, a-vertj to turn from ; ab-jecty \xi 
throw away ; abs-tract, to draw away. 

wJd — to or at ; as, ad^here, to stick to ; ad~mire, to wonder at. 
^7ite — means before ; as, ante-cedent, going before. 

Circicm — signifies round, about ; as, circurn-navigate, to sail round. 

Con, cmn, co, col — together ; as, con-join, to join together ; corn-press, to 
press together ; co-operate, to work together ; col-lapse, to fall together. 

Contra — against ; as, contr co-diet, to speak against. 

De — from, down ; as, de-duct, to take from ; descend, to go down. 

Di, dis — asunder, away ; as, di-Jacerale, to tear asunder j dis-miss, to send 
ftway. 

15* 



174 ETYMOLOGT. 

E, ef, «a>— out ; as, t'-ject, to throw out ; ef-JhiXj to flow out , «a:-cl«<?«, to 
Bhut out. 

Extra — beyond ; as, extra-ordinary, beyond what is ordinary. 
In, im, il, ir — (in, Gothick, inna, a cave or cell ;) as, in-Jitse, to pour y^. 
These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly m- 
v6rse their meaning ; as, in-sufficient^ im-politej H-legitimatCf ir-reverence^ ir 
resolute. 

Inter — between ; as, inter-pose, to put between. 

Intro — within, into ; intro-vert, to turn within ; intro-dtiee, to lead into. 

Ob, op — denote opposition; as, ob-ject, to bring against ; op-pugn, to op 
pose. 

Per — through, by ; as, per-ambidate, to walk through ; per~haps, by haps 

Post — after ; as, post-script, written after ; post-fix, placed after. 

Pr(B, pre — before ; aa, pre-fix, to fix before. 
^ Pro — for, forth, forward; as, pro-noun, for a noun; pro-tendf to stretch 
forth ; pro-ject, to shoot forward. 

Prccter — past, beyond ; zs, preter-perfect, pastperfect; preter-natural,hQ 
yond the course of nature. 

Re — again or back ; as, re-peruse, to peruse again ; re-trace, to trace back. 

Retro — backwards ; as, retrospective, looking backwards. 

Se — aside^ apart ; as, se-duce, to draw aside. 

Sub — under ; as, sub-scribe, to write under, or sub-sign. 

Subter — under ; as, subter-jfhious, flowing under. 

Super — above or over ; as, super-scribe, to write above ; super-vise^ to 
overlook. 

Trans — over, beyond, from one place to another ; as, trans-port, to carry 
over ; trans-gress, to pass beyond. 

51. GREEK PREFIXES. 

A — signifies privation ; as, »(/»<,..»..», ♦/ithout name, 

Amphi — both or two ; as, amphi-bious, partaking of both or two natures. 

Anti — against ; as, anti-masonry, against masonry. 

Dia — through; as, dia-meter, line passing through a circle. 

Hyper — over ; as, hyper-critical, over or too critical. 

Hypo — under, implying concealment or disguise; as, Ai/po-cn(e, one dis- 
sembling his real character. 

Meta — denotes change or transmutation ; as, meta-morplwse, to change 
the snape. 

Para — contrary or against ; as, para-dox, a thing contrary to received 
opinicn. 

Peri — round about ; as, peri-phrasis, circumlocution. 

Syn, syl, sym — together ; as, syn-tax, a placing together ; syn-od, a meet- 
ing or coming together ; syUlable, that portion of a word which is taken to 
getner ; sym-pathy, fellow-feeling, or feeling together. 



RULE^ OF SYNTAX, 

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which 
treats of the agreement and government of words, 
and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government 

Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another, in gender, person, number, or case. 

' For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 
52, and 53. 

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its 
«rords and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. 

The prmcipal parts of a simple sentence are 
the nominative or subject, the verb or attribute, 
or word that makes the affirmation, and the oh- 
jecU or thing affected by the action of the verb ; 
as, '* A wise man governs his passionsJ^ In this 
sentence, man is the subject ; governs, the at- 
tribute ; and passions the object. 

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, making sometimes a part of a sentence, 
and sometimes a whole sentence. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or 
words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unne- 
cessary repetitions, and. to express our ideas con- 
cisely, and with strength and elegance. 

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a 
condensed form, many of the essential Notes being omitted. 
This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which 
Etymology and SyntELX> you know, are blended. Hence, to 



176 RULES OI SYNTAX, 

acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you 
must look over the whole. 

You may now proceed and parse the following additional ex 
ercises in false Syntax ; and, as you analyze, endeavour to cor- 
rect all the errours without looking a* the K'^y. If, in correct- 
ing these examples, you should be at a loss m assigning the rea- 
sons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the 
manner adopted in the foregoing pages. 

RULE I. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in th( 
singular number only, individually or collec- 
tively ; as, " j1 star, an eagle, a score, a thou^ 
sand." 

RULE II. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns m th( 
singular or plural number ; as, *' The star, thi 
stars ; the hat, the hats." 

Note 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by l!' 
use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little re 
•■ence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, " He behaved with littte reve^ 
rence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person 
by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, " There were few men with him, 
I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; where-! 
as, when I say, " There were a few men with him," 1 evidently intend to^ 
make the most of them. 

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaninjj of every or each; 
** They cost five shillings a dozen ;" that is, ' every dozen.' 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 
" And passmg rich with forty pounds a year !" 
that is, * every year.' 

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various quali- 
ties of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should 
be repeated ; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things^ 
the article should not be repeated. "^ black and a white calf," signifies, A] 
black calf, and a white calf; but " .^2 black and white calf," describes the two ; 
colours of ojie calf. 

RULE III. 

The nominative case governs the verb ; as, " i 
learn, thou learnest, he learns, they learn." 

RULE IV. 

The verb must agree with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, " The bird singSy the 
birds sing, thou singestJ^ ^ 

- Note 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a 
nominative, expressed or implied j as, '* Awake, arise;" that is, Awake ytf 
arise ye. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 177 

t, Wbec a verb eomei between two nouns, either of which may be con- 
mdered as the subject of tne affirmation, it must agree with that which ia 
Diore naturally its subject ; as, " The wages of sin' is death ; His meat was 
.ocusts and wild honey j" " His pavihon were dark waters and thick clouds.^* 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. 

Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 

So much botli of ability and merit, 3Te seldom found. 

The sincere is always esteemed. 

Not one of them are happy. 

What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suit- 
ably to them ? 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of 
iiope give consolation. 

The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the 
operations of nature, are without limit. 

A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. 

Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do somethin 
to relieve him. 

In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 

O thou, my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

JVoie 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

He was a man whose incUnations led him to be corrupt, and 
had great abilities to manage the business. 
JVo^e 2. The cro\vn of virtue is peace and honour. 

His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. 
RULE V. 

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun 
addressed, is put in the nominative case indepen- 
dent; as, " Plato, thou reasonest well ;" " Do, 
7 Vim, said my uncle Toby." 

Note 1. A noim is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it. 
2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun o{ the first person 
after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third 
J person ; as, " Ah ! me ; Oh ! thmi ; ! virtue.'* 

RULE VI, 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
and being independent of the rest oi the sen- 
tence, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, 
" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost ;" *« The sun 
being risen, we travelled on." 



178 RULES OF SYNTAX* 

Note. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, 
should belong to some verb expressed or understood ; as, " To whom thus, 
ddam;" that is, spoke. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Him Destroyed, . 
Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
All this will follow soon. 

JVote. — Two substantives, when they come together, and do i 
3iot signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive i 
case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are soi 
constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine i 
merit. 

RULE VII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition,, 
in the same case; as, " Pmd the apostle ;^^ '^Joram 
the king f^ '^Solomon, ihe son of David, kingot 
Israel, wrote many proverbs." 

Note. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, " The! 
sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library — {which was) a misfortun* \ 
that greatly depressed him." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. 

The pronoun/ie in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. 
ftjs the object of the action of the transitive verb " love," and put by appo- 
sition with " God ;" therefore it should be the objective case, hinij according; 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.) 

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. 

T^ ey slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

It vvas John, him who preached repentance. 

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July,, 
1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declara 
tion of Independence. 

Augustus the Roman emperour, him who succeeded Juliusi 
Cesar, is variously described by historians. 

RULE VIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronounS: 
m the singular number, connected by copulativt:| 
conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns, agreeing with them in the plural; as,! 
" Socrates and Plato were wise ; they were emi*} 



RULES OP SYNTAX. ltd 

Note 1 . When each or every relates to two or more nominatives in the sin- 
gular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of 
tnem in the smgular ; as, " jE»«-t/ leaf, and every twig, and every drop of wa- 
ter, teems with life." 

2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun 
joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun 
tgreeing with it, in ike singular ; as, " Prosperity with humility, renders its 
possessor truly amiable ;" " The General, also, in conjunction with the offi- 
cers, has applied for redress." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies : it is exported in 
large quantities. 

»" Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grmvs 
is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, "coffee 
and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative con- 
lunction, and ; therefore the verb should be plural, grow ; and then it would 
agree with coffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The 
pronoun if, as it represents both the nouns, '* coffee and sugar," ought also 
to.be plural, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written 
^hus, "Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in large 
quantities." 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Life and health is both uncertain. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrit} . 

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense 
ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you 
think you have no need of assistance ? 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow 1 

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother : bind it continually upon thy heart. 

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the 
eyes of the judicious. 

There is errour and discrepance in the schemes of the 
orthoepists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them iiito 
effect. 

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. 

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. 

Not proper ; for, although and couples things together so as to present the 
whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect : it distributes them, and 
brings each separately and singly under consideration. Were nTimbojred is 
therefore improper. It should be, "was numbered," in the singular, ac- 
cording to the Note. (Repeat it.) 

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every 
person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favourable 
fiffht. 



180 RUL&9 «F SYNTAX. 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in 
the singular number, connected by disjunctive 
conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pro* 
nouns, agreeing with them in the singular ; as, 
*' Neither John wor James has learned Us lesson." 

Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with 
that which is piaced nearest to it ; as, *' Thou or I am in fault ; I or thou art 
to blame ; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it." But it would be better to 
say, " Either I am to blame or thou art," &c. 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a 
plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which 
should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, " Neither poverty nor rictus 
were injurious to liim ;" " I or they were offended by it*" 
Constructions Uke these ought generally to be avoided. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

The verb, have caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, 
because it expresses the action, not of both,hut of either the one or the other 
of its nominatives ; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused ; and 
then it would agree with " ignorance or negligence," agreeably to Rule 9. 
CRepeat the Rule.) 

A circle or a square are the same in idea. 

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. 

Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which movej 
merely as they are moved. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, thej 
sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into ^ 
his own hands. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 
hfe, for they may be thy own lot. 

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. 

A collective noun or noun of multitude, con- 
veying unity of idea, generally has a verb or pro* 
noun agreeing with it in the singular ; as, " The 
meeting was large, and it held three houi^." 

Note. Rules 10, and 1 1, are limited in their application. See page 59. 
FALSE SYNTAX. 



The nation are powerful 
The fleet were seen saili 
Th« church have no power to mflict corporal punishnaoiit 



The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. j||k 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 181 

The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects 
of (he shepherd's care. 

That nation was once powerful ; but now they are feeble. 

RULE XI. 

A noun of multitude, conveying plurality of 
iilea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with 
it in the plural ; as, " The council were divided 
in their sentiments." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
My people doth not consider. 

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. 
The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has re- 
ferred the business to the general meeting. 

The people rejoices in that v/hich should give it sorrow 

RULE XII. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive ease, is 

foverned by the noun it possesses ; as, " Man^s 
appiness ;" ^'Its value is great." 

Note. \. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the pos- 
sessive sign should generally be apphed to the last term only ; as, " The 
duke of Bridgeicater's canal; The bishop of Landaff^s excellent book; The 
captatti of the guard^s house." This usage, however, ought generally to 
be avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What 
nonsense to say, " This is the governour of Ohio's house !" 

2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each 
other in quick succession, the possessive sign is ge-nerally annexed to the 
lust only ; as, " For David my sei-vanVs sake ; John the Baptist's head ; The 
canal was built in consequence of De Will Clinton the gmjemour''s advice." 

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the 
sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the 
rest ; aS; " I reside at Lord StormmiVs, my old patron and benefactor.'''' 

3. /is, the possessive case of it, is often improperly used for "'tis, or, it is ; 
as, " lis my book : Its his," &c. ; instead of, " It is my book ; or, 'Tis my 
boek ; It is his ; or, 'Tts his." 

4. Participl'^-s frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive 
ijase; as, "la case of his -unajesty^s dying vithout issue, &,c. ; Upon God's 
km;)ig ended all his rvorks, etc. ; I remember its being reckoned a great ex- 
ploit ; At pw conring in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle 
*^ith its adjuncts may be considered; a substantive phrase, according to Note 
2, Rule 28. 

5. Phrases like these, " A work of TVashington Irving^ s ; A brother of Jo- 
seph's ; A friend of mine ; A neighbour ofyaurs,^' do not, as some have sup- 
posed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they 
may be thus construed ; " A work of (out of, or, ainojig the number of) Wash- 
tngton Irving' s works; that is, One of the works of Washington Irving ; One 
6f the brothers of JbsepA; One- friend of ?nt/^cnc^3; One neighbour of j/aur 
neighhoursJ^ 

16 



I 



182 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Homers works are much admired. 

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. 

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. 

JVote 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's Jot to 
suffer great calamities. 

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. 

JVote 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. 

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and hab- 
erdasher's. 
. JVote 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. 

Much depends on this rule being observed. 

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglect- 
ing to lay it before the council. 

RULE XIII. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns 
for which they stand, in gender and number ; as, 
" John writes, and he will soon write well." 

Note. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is 
always •plural inform; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; 
as, " My friend, you were mistaken.*' See pages 99 and 100. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Every man will be rewarded according to their works. 

Incorrect, beo«.,«t the pronoun their does not agree m gender or number 
with the noun " man," for which it stands ; consequently Rule 13, is violated. 
Their should be his ; and then the pronoun would be of the masculiriC gen- 
der, singular number, agreeing with man^ according to Rule 13. (Repeat the 
Rule.) 

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their 
audience. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards 
heaven, in the sigh-t of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. 

No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputa- 
tion. 

JVofe. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy 
of censure. 

Witness, where was you standing during tbe transaction I 
How far was you from the defendant 1 
RULE XIV. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, 
\n gender, per so7iy2in^ number; as, "Thou ivho • 
laves I wisdom ;" ''I who speak from experience.** 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 183 

Note. Wien a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of differ- 
ent persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but 
not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man who command you;"' 
or, " I am the uian xoho commands you." The meaning of the first of these 
examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus : " I who com 
niand you, am the man." 

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the pre- 
ceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as, " I 
am the Lord, thai maketh all things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone ; 
tkat spi'eadeth abroad the earth by myself," &c 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. 

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. 

Thou great First Cause, least understood ! 

Who all my sense confined. 

JVo^e, 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abra- 
nam, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. 

RUI.E XV. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and the 
verb ; as, " The master who taught us, was emi- 
nent." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

If he will not hear his beat friend, whom shall be sent to 
admonish him. 

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor 

RULE XVI. 

When a nominative comes between the relative 
and the verb, the relative is governed by the fol- 
lowing verb, or by some other word in its own 
member of the sentence ; as, " He whom I serve^ 
is eternal." 

Note 1. Who, which, what, the relative that, and their compounds, whtnn 
ever, wJurmsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before 
the verb ; as, " He whom ye seek, has gone hence." 

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " Who steals my purse,steals trash ;" that is, Ae who. 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes ele- 
gantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "O", 
which side soever the king cast his eyes," &c. 

4^ The pronoun what is sometimes improperly used instead of the con- 
junction that ; as, " He would not believe but what I was in fault." It should 
be, «* but thai;' k.c. 



184 RULES OT SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. 

Not proper, because icho, which is the object of the action expressed by 
the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be wkom, 
in the objective ; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to 
Rale 16. (Repeat the Rule:)— and, also, according to Rule 20. " That is 
the friend whom I sincerely esteem." 

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

From the character of those who you associate with, youi 
own will be estimated. 

He is a man who I greatly respect. 

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to 
love, and who we ought to be grateful to. 

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the 
caprices of fortune. 

TVho did you walk with ? 

Who did you see there 1 

Who did you give the book to ? 

KULE XVII. 

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing 
the answer to the question for its subsequent, 
which subsequent must agree in case with the in- 
terrogative; as, " Whose hook is that? Joseph's ;" 
*^ Who gave you this 1 John,^^ 

Note. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, ia 
dou^ful ; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the 
interrogative. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

WTio gave John those books 1 Us. Of whom did you buy 
them ? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl-street. 
Who walked with you ? My brother and him. 
Who will accompany me to the country 1 Her and me. 
RULE XVIII. 

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, ex- 
pressed' or understood ; as, " He is a good, as 
well as a wise man." 

Note 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns ; as, "/am wwVroWe; 
He is industrious." 

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns mustagree in num- 
ber with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind ; as, ^^ Ten feet; Eighty 
fatliomsJ" But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception 
to this rule ; as,"^A fleet o^ foity sail;" " Tioo hundred head of cattle." 

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part 
cf a sentence ; as, " To see is pleasant ; To be blind is unfortunate ; To die 
for our country i,s gloriouiJ^ 



mmmm 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 186 

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or ^he 
action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the 
action by which tliat quaUty is produced ; as, ♦' Red hot iron ; Pde blue 
hiiing; Deep sea-green sash; The apples boil so/if ; Open your hand wide; 
The clay burns white } The fire burns blue; The eggs boil /tar</." 

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is under 
Rtood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase ; afS, " In ge- 
neral, in particular ;" that is, generally, particularly. 

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify ; as, 
" A tract of good land." 

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not hteral- 
y admit of comparison ; such as, more impossible, most impossible; more un- 
conquerable, more perfect, ^"C. See Remarks on adjectives, page 76. 

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparmg two objects, it 
sliould be in tiie comparative degree ; but when more than two are com- 
pared, the superlative ought to be employed ; as, " Julia is the taller of the 
two ; Her specimen is the best of the three." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

J^oie 2. The boat carries thirty tun. 

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fatliom 
in depth. 

JS'ote 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece 
of furniture. 

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract ot 
land. 

JVote 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incom- 
prehensible. 

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. 

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. 

JYote 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest i 

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. 

RUI^E XIX. 

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, express- 
ed or understood ; as, " ,^ny man, all men." 

NotE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number 
with their nouns ; as, " This book, these books ; that sori,ihose sorts." 

2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, and one^ 
agree with nouns in trie shigular number only ; as, ^' Each man, every per- 
son, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, 
" Every six months." 

3. Either is often improperly employed instead of each ; as, " The king of 
Israel, and .Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of ihem on his thrwie." 
Each signifies both taken separately ; either implies only the one or tk* «<fc«r 
taken disjunctively : — " sat each on ihis throne." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
J^ote 1. Those sort of favours do real injury. 
They have been playing this two hours. 
These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mini 
He saw one or more [ ersons enter the garden. 
16* 



18$ RULES or SYNfAX. 

J^ote 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 
There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible 
Every person, whatever their station may be, are boimd by 
the laws of morality and religion. 

JVo/e 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 
Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 
RULE XX. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective 
cjfse ; as, " Cesar conquered Pompey ;" " Colum- 
bus discovered Jimerica f^ ''Truth ennobles her'^ 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. 

Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the ac- 
tion expi^seed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and therefore it 
should be you, in the objective case. You would then be governed by " hath 
quickened," agreeably to Rule 20. Active-iransitive verbs govern the objective 
case. 

Who did they entertain so freely? 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

He and they we know, but who are ye 1 

She that is negligent, reprove sharply. 

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit. 

Who did they send on that mission 1 

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to 
love. 

RULE XXI. 

The verb to be may have the same case after it 
as before it ; as, " / am the fnan ;" " I believe it to 
have been them ;" " He is the thief J^ 

Note 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb 
to be, signify the sarne thing, they are in apposition, and, therefore, in the 
same case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7. 

2. The verb to be is often understood ; as, " The Lord made me man; He 
made him what he was ;" that is, " The Lord made me to be man ; He made 
him to be that which he was." " They desired me to call them brethren, -^^ i. e. 
% the name o/brethren. " They named him John;'''* i. e. by the name o/ John ; 
©r, by the name John : putting these two nouns in apposition. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
I know it to be they. 

Irnproper, because it is in the objective case before the verb "to be," and 
(^ey is in the nominative after ; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. They is 
sa, apposition with l«, therefore they should be them^ in the objective aftef to 
h% acooifding to Rde 21. (Repeat the Rvle,) 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 1H7 

Be composed, it is me. 

1 would not act thus, if I were him. 

Well may you be afraid ; it is him, indeed. 

Who do you fancy him to be ? 

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am 1 

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been 1 

He supposed it was mo ; but you knew that it was him. 

RULE XXII. 

Active -intransitive and passive verbs, the verb 
/o become, and other neuter verbs, have the same 
case after them as before them, when both words 
refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, " Tom 
struts a soldier f "Will sneaks a scrivener;'" 
'He was called Cesar f'' '' The ge?ieral was sa- 
luted emperour i^ " They have become yb(9/^." 

Note 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, 
and govern the objective case ; as, " To dream a dream; To nma.race; To 
w(dk the horse ; To dance the clnld; Tofiij the /rife." 

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not 
literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, 
which causes the verb to be followed by an objective case without the possi- 
bihty of supplying before it a preposition : thus, " Pitticus was offered a large 
sum by the king;" " She was promised them (the jcxods) by her mother-" 
" / was asked a questmi." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to 
the idiom of our language, to say, " A large sum was offered to Pitticus ;''* 
" They were promised {to) her ;" " A question was put to me.''"' 

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound 
active verbs. To smile, to wonder, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for which 
reason they have no passive voice ; but, to smile on, to loonder at, to drtam 
of, are compound active-transitive verb.^ and, therefore, admit of a passive 
voice ; as, " He was smiled on by fortune ; The accident is not to be won- 
dered at;^^ 

" There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
" Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." 

RULE XXIII. 

A verb in tlie infinitive mood may be governed 
oy a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; 
as, '' Cease to do evil ;" " We all have our ta- 
lent to be improved ;" " She is eager to learn ;" 
" They d^ve preparing to go;" " Let him do it." | 

Illustration. The supposed principle of government referred to in this |, 

rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, " Cease to do evil," the pe- V 

culiar manner in which cease is introduced, requires or compels us to put the ■{ 

verb do in the infinitive mood ; and, according to the genius of our language, ' 

we cannot express tins act of doing, v^hcn thus connected with cease, in any | 

i#ther mood, unless we cliange the construction of the sentence. Hence we \ 



J88 RULES OP SYNTAX. 

say, that cease jjoverns the mood of the verb do. Similar remarks may d« 
apphed to the words iale7it, eager, preparing, and him, in tne respective ex- 
amples under the rule. 

Many respecta!)le grammarians refer the government of this mood inva 
riahly to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not, of course, con- 
sider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, tliat 
this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea ol 
government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if sub- 
Htituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. 

RULE. 

A verb in the infiriitive mood, refers to some 
noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor. 

Illustration of the examples un^ler Rule XXUI. " To do" refers to 
Vioii understood for its agent ; "to be improved" refers to talent; "to 
learn," to she ; " to go," to they , and " to do," referr, to lihn. 

Note 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest o< 
the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, i was in fault." 

2. The infinitive mood is sometijnos governed by conjunctions ar ad- 
verbs ; as, " An object so high as to be invisible ;" " He is wise enough to de 
ceive;" " The army is about to march.'''* 

KIJLE XXIY. 

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is fre 
quently put as the nominative case to a verb, oi 
the object of an active-transitive verb ; as, " To 
play is pleasant ;" " Boys love to play ;" " That 
warm climates shorten life^ is reasonable to sup- 
pose f " He does not consider how near he ap- 
proaches to his eud'^ 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omit- 
ted ; as, " I heard him say it :" instead of, " to say it." 

RULE XXV. 

The verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make^ 
see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are 
in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed ; 
as, " He bids me come ;" " I dare engage ;" 
"Let me go ;" " Help me do it ;" i. e. to come^ 
to go, to do it, &c. " He is hearing me recite,'''* 
FALSE SYNTAX. 

Bid mm to come- 

He durst not to do it without permission. 

Hear him to read his lesson. 

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to ap- 
prove the one, and ta reject the other. 

It is better live on a little, than outhve a great deal. 

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 189 

RULE XXVI. 

Participles have the same government as the 
verbs have from which they are derived ; as, "I 
saw the tutor instructing his pupilsJ'^ 

Note. The present participle with the definite article the before it, be^ 
comes a noun, and must have the preposition 0/ after it. The and of musi 
both be used, or both be omitted ; as, *' By the observing q/" truth, you will 
command respect j" or, " By observing truth," &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

jyote. We cannot be wise and good without the taking 
pains for it. 

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting 
up kmgs, belong to Providence alone. 

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you 
may avoid mistakes. 

RTJLE XXVII. 

The present participle refers to some noun or 
pronoun denoting the subject or actor ; as, " I 
see a boy running J^ 

RULE XXVIII. 

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjec- 
tive, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or un- 
derstood. ; as, *' I saw the boy abused J' 

Note 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as be- 
fore them ; as, " Pontius Pilate being Governoiir of Judea, and Herod being 
Tetrarch," &c 

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a sub- 
stantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or 
the object of a verb or preposition ; as, " Taking from another without his 
knowledge or assent, is called stealing ; He studied to avoid expressing himself 
too severely ; I cannot fail of having money, &c. ; By promising much and per- 
fommig but little, we become despicable." 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indis- 
criminately used. It is frequently said, 'he begun,' for ' he began;' * He 
run,' for, ' he ran ;' ' He come,' for ' he came ;' the participles being here 
used instead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequently is the im- 
perfect tense employed instead of the participle ; as, ' I had wrote,' for * I 
had wntten ;' * I was chose,' for ' I was chosen ;' * I have eat,' for * I have 
eaten.' * He would have spoke ;' — spoken. * He overrun his guide ;' — overran 
* The sun had rose ;' — riseii. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
I seen him. I have saw many a one. 

. Seen is improper, the perfect part iciple being used instead of the imperfect 
lense of the verb. It ought to be, " I saw him," according to Note 3. Havt 



T90 RULES OP SYNTAX. 

saw is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of tho per 
feet participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxi 
hary have with its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be writ 
ten thus, "I have seen many a one:" Note 3. 

JVote 3. He done me no harm, for 1 had wrote my lettei 
before he come home. 

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went 
to Europe long ago. 

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. 

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. 

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they 
writ on the same subject. 

RUI.E xxrx. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, 
and other adverbs ; as, " A very good pen writes 
extremely well ;" " By living temperately y^ &c. 

Note 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after 
verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible 
discourse, and was attentively heard." 

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses quality, it 
must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should be 
used ; as, " She looks cold; She looks coldly on him; He feels warm; He 
feels xoarmly the insult offered to him." If the verb to be can be substituted 
for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb ; as, 
*' She looks [is] cold ; The hay smells [is'] sioeet; The fields look [are] green ; 
The apples tasle [are] sour; The wind blows [is] fresh.'" 

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where, to , 
verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither : thu^ 
"He came here [hither] hastily;" "They rode there [thither] in two 
hours j" " Where [whither] will he go?" But in familiar style, these con- 
structions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. 

4. The use of cohere, instead of in which, in construetions like the follow- 
ing, is hardly admissible : " The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter, 
where [in which] their rights are boldly asserted." 

5. As the adverbs hence, thence, and lohence, literally supply the place ol 
a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a pre- 
position in conjunction M'ith them : " From whence it follows ;" " He came 
from thence since morning." Better, " whence it follows ;" " He came 
thence^ The following phrases are also exceptionable : " The the7i minis- 
try ;" " The above argument ;" " Ask me 7iever so much dowry ;" " Charm 
he newer so wisely." Better, ^^ The m'mistvy of that time or period ;" "The 
preceding argument ;" " Ever so much dowry ;" " Et>er so wisely." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Ao/e 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to 
cmonstrate. 
He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 
These things should be never separated. 
We may happily live, though our possessions are small. 



RULES OP eiTNTAX. 191 

RULE XXX. 

Two negatives destroy one another, and are 
generally equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " Such 
uiings are not wwcommon ;" i. e. they are com- 
mon. 

Note. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another 
word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression ; as, " His lan- 
giiage, though inelegant, is not uwgrammatical ;" that is, it is grammatical. 

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an af- 
firmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative meaning. 
The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : '* I cannot hy no means allow 
him what his argument must prove." It should be, " I cannot by any means," 
&.C., or, " I can by no means." 

FALSE SYNTAX. ' 

J^ote, 2d part. I don't know nothing about it. 
I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. 
Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
Precept nor disciphne is not so forcible as example. 

RULE XXXI. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
"He went from Utica to Rome, and then passed 
through Redfield." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Each is accountable for hisself. 

They settled it among theirselves. 

It is not I who he is displeased with. 

VV^ho did you go with ? 

Who did you receive instruction from 1 

RULE XXXII. 

Home, and nouns signifying distance, time ivhen, 
\fiow long, &c. are generally governed by a pre- 
jposition understood; as, " The horse ran a mile ;" 
I" He came home last June ;" " My friend lived 
jifour years at college ;" that is, ran through the 

mce of a mile ; or, ran over a space called a 
fcile ; to his home in last June ; during hur yeais, 
l^c. 

Note 1. The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before 
Ijhe pronouns ; as, "Give [to] me a book; Get [for] him some paper." 
2.^To or MM/o, is, by some, supposed to be understood after like and 



192 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

unlike; as, "He is like [unto] his brother; She is unlike [to] him." Others 
consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and mamtain 
that like governs the objective following it. 

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are 
used without a governing word ; as, " The Ohio is one thousand miles long ; 
She is ten years old ; My hat is worth ten dollars.'" These are sometimes 
considered anomalies. See page 163. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in 
the same case ; as, " The master taught her and 
me to write ;" " He and she are associates." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
IMy brotlier and liim are grammarians. 
You and me enjoy great privileges. 

Ilim and I went to the city in company ; but Jolm and him 
returned without me. 

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. 
RULE XXXIY. 

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like 
moods and tenses ; as, " If thou sincerely desire, 
and eixrnestlj pursue virtue, she will assuredly be 
found by thee, and prove a rich reward." 

Note 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, 
the nominative must be repeated ; as, " He may return, bnthe'ivill not tarry.^ 

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive 
mood after them; as, ^' 1/ he study, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, 
and 155. 

3. The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, ivhether, and lest, generally 
require the subjunctive mood after them. 

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, re- 
quire the indicative mood ; as, " As virtue advances, so vice recedes.''^ 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 
Professing regard, and to act diiierenlly, discovers a base 
mind. 

jy*ote 1. He has gone home, biit may return. 
The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more 
J^ote 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. 
If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction 
ihan^ as, or but, is nominative to a verb, or gov 
erned by a verb or preposition, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, " Thou art wiser than I [«m."] *^1 
saw nobody but [I saw] Icnm,^' 



SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 193 

Note 1. The conjunction as, when it is connected with sitch, many, or 
same, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a relative pronoun ; as, " Let 
sttch as presume to advise others," &c. ; that is, Let them who, &c. See page 

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, wnich 
must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grannnatically ; as, " Wo is 
me ;" that is, to me , " To sleep all night ;" i. e, through all the night ; "He 
has gone a journey ;" i. e. en a journey ; " They v/alked a league ;" i. e. wer 
a space called a league. 

3. When the oinission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its 
force, they must be expressed. 

4. In the use of prepositions, and wards that relate to each other, we should 
pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they 
connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a 
regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
They are much greater gainers than me. 
They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a better 
l^ammarian than them. 

They were all well but him. 
None were rewarded but him and me. 
Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. 
REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 

1 . In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, 
in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that rela- 
tion should be observed. 

Instead of saying, " T!ie Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ;" 
we should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead 
of, " I remember the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, " I 
have remembered the family more than twenty years." 

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the 
tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of tmrie, relate 
to each other, is this very general one ; Observe what the sense 
necessartiy requires. 

To say, " I have visited Washington last summer ; I have seen the work 
more than a month ago," is not good sense. The constructions should be, 
w I visited Washington, &c. ; I saw the work, &c." " This mode of expres- 
sion has been formerly much admired :" — " loas formerly much admired." 
" If I had have been there ;" " If I had have seen him ;" " Had you have 
known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I 
hace been, I had been ; but what sort of a tense is, had have been 7 To 
place had before the defective verb ought, is an errour equally gross and 
illiterate : — " had ought, hadnH ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the 
use of theim, hem, and hizzen, tother, jurder, baynt, this ere, I seed it, I 
teWd him. 

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of 
^' that time in which it took place; remains, the imperfect tense 

should be used ; but if there is still remaining some portion of 
the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the 
perfect tense should be employed. 

17 



194 SYNTAX OF TF^ TeiVAt?- 

Thus, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries m tne last century ;** 
" He was much afflicted last year ;" but when we refer to the present cen- 
tury, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the perfect tense ; as, " Philost- 
ophers have made great discoveries in the present century;" "He has 
fceen much afflicted this year;" " I have read the president's message this 
week ;" " We have heard important news this morning ;'* because these 
events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still 
there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is con- 
nected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author 
or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; 
but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought 
not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They 
have,in a\\ ages, claimed great powers;" because the general order of the 
priesthood still exists ; but we cannot properly say, " The Druid priests 
have claimed great powers ;" because that order is now extinct. W6 ought, 
therefore, to say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers." 

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper 
uso and application of the tenses. " My brother has recently been to 
Philadelphia." It should be, " loas recently at Philadelphia ;" because tha 
adverb recently refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to tho 

[>resent time. " Charles is grown consideyably since I have seem him the 
ast time." Corrected, " Charles has grown, since I saw him," &c. "Pay- 
ment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long 
postponed." Corrected, " for its having been so long postponed." " They 
were arrived an hour before we reached the city :" — " They had arrived." 

" The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession 
of it." It should be, "will have completed the building," &c. "This curious 
piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to straijgers for more than 
firlv years past :" — "has been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. 
" Ihad rather write than beg :"— " I xvould rather write than beg." 

" On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul 
tt'as accused of the Jews, he loosed hirh from his bands." It ought to be, 
" because he would knoio ; or, being willing to knoio,''^ &c. " The blind man 
said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might 
attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, may would 
be prefexuble to might. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I 
arrived :" — " that I should ^ose." " It would have afforded me no satisfac- 
tion, if I could perform it." It ought to h^, " if I could have performed it ;" or, 
"It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." "This dedication 
may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published :" — " that 
has been, or will be published." 

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood 
with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the mean- 
ing of what we express. 

Verbs expressive of hope, desire^ intention, or command, ought 
to be followed by the present tense of the Infiniiive mood. 

" Last week I intended to have toritten," is improper. The intention ol 
writing was then present with me ; and, therefore, the construction should 
be, " I intended to write.'''' The following examples are also inaccurate ; " I 
found him better than I expected to have found him ;" " My purpose was 
after spending ten months more in commerce, to have xoithdrawn my wealth 
to another country." Thev fhould be, " expected to find him ;" " to withdraw 
?ny wealth." 

" This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose 
■•ame it bears." It ought to be " which proves itself fo have been written," &ic 



I'ALSE SYNTAX. 195 

*To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, " To 
have seen him ;'• or, " Tc see him woxdd qffh'd me pleasure," &c. " The argu- 
ments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them :" — "were suffi- 
cient to satisfy.-^ " History painters would have found it difficult to have 
invented such a species of*^ beings :" — " to invent such a species." 

5. Genera] and immutable truths ought to be expressed in 
the present tense. 

Instead of saying, " He did not know that eight and twenty loere equal to 
wenty and eight ;" " The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was 
iseful, loas good ;" " My opponent would not believe, that virtue was always 
idvantageous ;" The constructions should be, '"■are equal to twenty;" 
* whatever is useful, is good;" "virtue is always advantageous." 

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY 
ARRANGED. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to 
eternity. 

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which 
exist among men. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own 
hearts. 

Is it me or him who you requested to go ? 

Though great has been his disobedience and his fol'y, yet h 
he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. 

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. 

By exercising of our memories, they are improved. 

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, 
were wholly consumed. 

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but 
will not recommend us to the wise and good. 

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue 

They that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise 
me, shall be lightly esteemed. 

I intended to have called last week, but could not. 

The fields look freshly and gayly smce the ram. 

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. 

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen . 
Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. 

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. 

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. 

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. 

I have saw nim who you wrote to ; and he would have came 
back with me, if he could. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, under- 
stand the nature of the religion which they reject. 

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. 

Education is not attended to properly in Spain, 



196 FALSE SYNTAX. 

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it 

He has httle more of the great man besides the title. 

Richard acted very independent on the occasion. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. 

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. 

C-alumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, 
they will go out of themselves. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 
Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. 

A great mass of rocks thrown- together by the hand of nature 
with wiidness and confusion, strike the mind with more gran- 
deur, than if ihey were adjusted to one another with the accuratesi 
symmetry. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder 

The siue A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. 

If some persons opportunities were never so favourable, they 
would be too indolent to improve. 

It is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow. 

Beauty and innocence should be never separated. 

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where 
you will have much to fear and little to hope. 

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed 
in their knowledge of the Scriptures. 

\irtue arid mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where 
these are wan-ting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. 

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek 
»-von2;e, is the duty of a christian. 

The pohte, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all 
s pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than 
him. 

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, 
incline him to offend. 

This is one of the duties which requires greav cn-cumspection. 
. They that honour me, them will 1 honour. 

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. 

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athe- 
nians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in 
Athens. 

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, 
^hall deliver us from it in due time. 

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which 
Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 197 

Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your 
attention. 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless 
professions. 

After I visited Europe, 1 returned to America. 

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. 

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been 
again disappointed. 

Five and eight makes thirteen ; five from eight leaves three. 

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times 
that he has visited that renowned watering place. 

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was 
nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the 
brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. 

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. 

He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy. 

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have 
been. 

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of 
my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c. ? 

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not 
do it better. 

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when 
they have looked tound on the earth, and on the heavens, could 
not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing 
cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. 



CRITICAIi NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

Observation 1. The foUowang absurd phrases so common in the sacred 
desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common 
sense : — " Sing the two first and three last verses." Just as if there could be 
more than one first and one last. There may be a. first tioo, a second two, &c. ,- 
a. first three, a second three, a. last three. " Withm the hco Zosf centuries ;" 
" The second syllable of the three first words ;" " The three first of these or- 
thoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:" — "the 
last two centuries ;" " the first three wpids ;" " the first three of these or- 
thoepists," 

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. " The 
higher the river, the sivijler it flows ;" " James learns easier than Juliet ; he 
sees deeper into the millstone than she :" — " the more swiftly it flows ;" 
" learns mm-e easily; farther into the millstone." " He conducted the 
boldest of any :" — " the most boldly.'''' 

3. More requires than after it. The following sentences are therefore im- 
proper* *' He was more beloved, but not so much admired, it* Cinthio ;" 
*' Richard is more active, but not so studious, as his companion." The legi- 
timate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions, will show their 

17* 



198 CRITICAL REMARKS. 

frross impropriety : thus, " He was more beloved as Cinthio ;" " Richard is 
more active as his companion," &c. 

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generall;^ suhstitutes for two or 
more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you accompany me 
to Europe next summer?" " Fes." " Do you believe that the voyage will 
restore your health ?" " J^oJ'^ In these examples, the adverbs yes and no 
are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore do not qualify any words 
understood. Yes, in this instance, literally means, " Iivill accompany ym to 
Europe next summer ;" andito, " / do not believe that the voyage will restore my 
health.'''' Many other adverbs arc often employed in a similar manner. 

- " Firstly,^'' is often improperly used instead of the adverb^rsf ; " a good 
deal^" instead of, much, or, a great deal. 

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of such and so. The 
former may be employed in expressing qurt/ti?/; the latter, in expressing a 
degree of the quality ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found ;" " So bad a 
temper is seldom found." In the following examples, so should be used in- 
stead of 5?tc/i; " He is such an extravagant young man, that I cannot asso- 
ciate with him ;" " I never before saw such large trees." 

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to be 
imitated. " On page forty-Jive ;" " Look at page nineteen :" — -forty-fifth, 
nineteenth. 

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should 
be paid to their meaning as estal)lished by the idiom of our language and 
the best usage. " In my proceedings, I have been actuated from the con- 
viction, that I was supporting a righteous cause ;" " He should have pro- 
fited from those golden precepts ;" " It is connected to John with the con- 
junction miJ;" " Aware that there is, in the minds of many, a strong predi- 
lection in favour of established usages;" "He was made much on at Ar- 
gos ;" " They are resolved of going ;" " The rain has been falling of a long 
time ;" " It is a work deserving of encouragement." These examples may 
be corrected thus, " actuated by the conviction ;" " by those golden pre- 
cepts ;" " by the conjunction and ;" " predilection for ;" " much of at Ar- 
gos ;" " on going ;" " falling a long time ;" " deserving encouragement." 

7. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, where they follow 
verbs or participles of motion ; as, " I went to Washington." But at is em- 
oloyed after the verb to be ; as, " I have been at Washington ;" " He has 
■yeen to New- York, to home," &c. are improper. The preposition in is set 
oefore countries, cities, and large towns; "He lives in France, in London, 
in Philadelphia, in Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and 
villages which are in distant countries, at is commonly used ; as, " He lives 
at Park-place ;" " She resides at VinCennes." People in the northern states 
may say, " They live in New-Orleans, or, at New-Orleans." 

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be employed 
as active agents. The following are solecisms : " This house to let ;" 
"Horses and carriages to let ;" " Congress has much business to perform 
this session ;" because the agents, house, horses and carriages^ and business^ 
which are reallv passive, are, according to these constructions, rendered a* 
active. The expressions should be, " This house to be let ;" " Horses and 
carriages to be let ;" " much business to be performed,^^ 

9. Ambiguity. — " Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not 
literally correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing ; but, 
as a figurative expression, it is w^ell established and unexceptionable. 

" A crow is a large black bird:" — a large, black — bird. 
" I saw f\ horse — fly through the window :" — I saw a hm'sefly. 
'* I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw, througt 
a Spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 



199 



** One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see 
with half an eye, how the world goes. 

" A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea 
shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and 
circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to the sea shore ; 
whereas, he meant, " A large stoiie, which, after a long search, I happened 
to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." 

" I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice onZy 
those called personal pronouns. 

10. Tautology. — Avoid words which add nothing to the sense ; such as, 
"J^Tmo exta.nty free gratis, sloto mope, cold snow, a hot sun, afiowing stream, 
a dull blockhead, xoise sages." *' I am just going to go there j" I am ahaut 
to go. 

11. Absurdities and Improprieties. — " I can learn him many things." 
It ought to be, " I can teach him." To learrij is to acquire or receive informa- 
tion ; to teach, means to communicate it. 

" I don't think it is so." You do think, thaf it is not so. 

Ever, alicays. " I have ever been of this mind." I have always been. 
Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one indefinite period 
f>f time ; as, " If he ever become rich ;" always means at all times. 

Exaise, pardon. The former signifies to release from an obligation which 
refers to the future ; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past. 
** Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday :" pardon me. 

Remember, recollect. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind ; 
we recollect it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have power to 
call it back. 

Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, is de 
fective; a total absence of the thing, is a deficiency. 

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. 



CORRECTIONS IX ORTHOGRAPHY. 

From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the follow- 
ing are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's Walker. 



Incorrect. 


Correct. 


Incorrect. 


Correct. 


Abscision 


Abscission 


camblet 


camlet 


achievment 


achievement 


camphor 


camphire 


adze 


addice 


canvas 


canvass 


agriculturalist 
almanac 


agriculturist 
almanack 


carcase 


carcass 


centinel 


sentinel 


ancle 


ankle 


chace 


chase 


baise 


baize 


chalibeate 


chalybeate 


bason 


basin 


chamelion 


chameleon 


bass 


base 


chemist 


chymist 


bombazin 


bombasin 


chemistry 


chymistry 
colick 


boose 


bouse 


choUc 


boult 


bolt 


chuse 


choose 


buccaneer 


bucanier 


cimetar 


cimeter 


jurthen 


burden 


clench 


clinch 


bye 


by 


cloke 


cloak 


calimanco 


calamanco 


cobler 


cobbler 



200 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHT. 



IvCORnECT. 


Correct. 


chimnies 


cliimneya 


chesnut 


chestnut 


clue 


clew 


connection 


connexion 


corset 


corslet 


cypher 


cipher 


dactyl 


dactyle 


diocese 


diocess 


dipthong 


diphthong 


dispatch 


despatch 


doat 


dote 


draft 


draught 


drouth 


drought 


dye 


die 


dyer 


dier 


embitter 


iinbitter 


embody 


imbody 


enquire 


inquire 


enquirer 


inquirer 


enquiry 


inquiry 


ensnare 


insnare 


enterprize 


enterprise 


enthral 


inthral 


entrench 


intrench 


entrust 


intrust 


enwrap 


in wrap 


epaulette 


epaulo • 


etherial 


ethereal 


faggot 


fagot 


fasset 


faucet 


fellon 


felon 


fie 


fy 


germ 


germe 


goslin 


gosling 


gimblet 


gimlet 


Se 


gray 


halloo 


hansel 


handsel 


hightn 


height 


hindrance 


hinderance 


impale 


empale 


inclose 


enclose 


inclosure 


enclosure 


indict 


endict 


indictment 


endictment 


indorse 


endorse 


indorsement 


endorsement 


instructor 


instructer 


insure 


ensure 


insurance 


ensu ranee 


laquey 


lackey 


laste 


' last 


licence 


license 


loth 


lof.th 


Ive 


he 



Incorrect. 

malcontent 

maneuver 

merchandize 

misprison 

monies 

negociate 

negociation 

noviciate 

OUS3 

opake 

paroxism 

partizan 

patronize 

phrenzy 

pinchers, 

p w 

r ney 

? otatoe 

pumpkin 

quere 

recognize 

reindeet 

reinforce 

restive 

ribbon 

rince 

sadler 

sallad 

sceptic 

scepticism 

segar 

seignor 

Serjeant 

shoar 

soothe 

staunch 

streight 

subtract 

suitor 

sythe 

tatler 

thresh 

thwak 

tipler 

tranquility 

tripthong 

trissyllable 

valiee 

vallies 

vise 

waggon 

warrantee 

whoopingcough 

woe 

yeaRt 



Correct 

malecon* »t 

manoeuvre 

merchandis* 

misprision 

moneys 

negotiate 

negotiation 

novitiate 

ooze 

opaque 

paroxysm 

partisan 

patronise 

phrensy 

pincers 

plough 

pony 

potato 

purnpion 

query 

recognise 

raindecr 

re-enforce 

restiff 

riband 

rinse 

saddler 

salad 

skeptick 

skepticism 

cigar 

seignior 

sergeant 

shore 

sooth 

stanch 

straight 

substract 

suiter 

scythe 

tattler 

thrash 

thwack 

tippler 

tranquillity 

triphthong 

trisyllable 

valise 

valley's 

vice 

wagon 

warranty 

hoopingcougn 

wo 

yest 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY, 



201 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 

The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, 
as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeaoly to Cobb^s 
Walker, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the mispronuncia- 
tions given are provincial. 

Fkte, fEr, fill, fit — m^, m?t —pine, pin — ni, move, n8r, nSt — tibe, tSb 
bail— 5?l_f5and— fAin— THis. 



Orthogra- Improper, Pronoun- 

PHT. CED. 



Again 
Ally 


t-sknef 


i-gln' 


m 


M' 


Are 


kre 


Sr 


Azure 


Izh'Sr 


i'zhire 


Bade 


b4de 


bid 


Beard 


bird 


b^^rd 


Been 


bin or hU 


nbia 


Bleat 


hllh 


hUh 


Boil 


bile 


b&ll 


Bonnet 


ban'nlt 


bSn'nlt 


Brooch 


br6tsh 


brSStsh 


Camphiro 


Idra'flre 


kam'fir 


Canal 


ka-nawl' 


U-ntV 


Catch 


ketsh 


kitsh 


Causeway 


krSs'wi 


k^wz'wi 


Chalice 


kU'ls 


tshU'h 


Chasten 


tshis/sn 


tshisCsn 


Chimney 


tsh!m'bli 


tshim'ni 


Chine 


tshlme 


tshlne 


Choir 


k6?r 


kwire 


Clevy 


kllv'ifs 


kllvVi 


CUnch 


klgnsh 


kHnsh 


Column 


k&l'y^m 


kSl'lSm 


Combat 


kSm'bIt 


kSm'blt 


Comma 


kSm'm^ 


k&m'ml 


Coquet 


ki-kvvgf 


k6-klt' 


Corps 


k5rps 


kire 


Corpse 




k&rps 


Cover 


kV5r 


kdv'Sr 


Deaf 


d^^f 


dif 


Decisive 


d^-s?s/!v 


d^-sl'slv 


Depot 


di'pSt 


di.p6' 


Depuite 


dgp'i-tlze 


d^-pite' 


Design 


d^-zlne' 


d^-slne' 


Dmt 


dint 


dint 


Docile 


di'sUe 


d5s's?l 


Disgust 


dls-gSst' 


dlz-g-'ist' 


Dismay 


d]s-mi' 


d?z-mi' 


Disown 


d!s-6ne' 


aiz-6ne' 


Dost 


dist 


d.^ist 


Doth 


dhth 


Ahth 


Does 


dSSz 


d5z 


Drain 


dr^^n 


diine 


Drought 


dMth 


drftdt 


Drowned 


draand'ld 


drSiind 


Ductile 


d&k'tlle 


ddk'dl 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun- 

PHT. CED. 

Edge 

Either 

EngUsh 

Era 

Ere 

Fasten 

Fearful 

Figure 

Fiend 

First 

Foliage 

Fortune 

Fortnight 

Fountain 

Fracture 

Fragrance 

Futile 

Gather 

Get 

Girth 

Goal 

Going 

Gold 

Gum 

Grudge 

Gypsum 

Has 

Have 

Heard 

Hearth 

Hiss 

Hoist 

Homely 

Hoof 

Hostler 

Humble 

Jesting 

Kettle 

Lecture 

Leisure 

Lever 

Lid 

Lilach 

Loam 

Loo 

Maintain 



^j^. 


Idje 


rxHSr 


i'THSr 


Ing'Hsh 


!ng'gl!sh 


^'ri 


4'rl 


^re 


Are 


fls'tn 


fls'sn 


flr'ffil 


f^^r/fSl 


firf 


ffg'ire 


f^^nd 


fSst 


furst 


mvh\e 


fb'lUje 


fSr'tshSn 


fSr'tshiline 


fSrt'nit 


f&rt'nlte 


fSfin'tn 


f&fin'tk 


ft-^k'tshSr 


frak'tshAr*} 


frig'rinse 
fi'tUe 


fri'grSnse 
f A'tH 


gUh'^v 


glTH'Sr 


g?t 


ilt 


gSrt 


girth 


gm ^ 


g61e 


g6ne or sb 
gSSld [!n 


-gMng 


gild 


g85m 
b^-grltsh' 


gam 


jlllm 


gip'sum 


hlz 


hiz 



have hiv 

Uhd hird 
hhthorhithhkrth 

siss h?ss 

hlste h8!st 

h&m'bl4 h6me14 

hM h88f 

haws'iSr Ss'ldr 

hdm'bl Sm'bl 

iUsVin jlsting 

Mt^ti kit'tl 

llk'tshSr llk'tshAre 

llzh'ur l^'zhAre 

llv'tir l^vSr 

lid i?a 

U'lftk iH^k 

lo8m lAme 

lA 153 

mine-tane' min-tine 



202 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



Orthogra- Improper. Pronoun- 



Mermaid 
Mountain 
Nature 
Neither 
Oblige 
Oblique 
Of 
Oil 
Only 
Panther 
Parent 
Partner 
Pasture 
Patron 
Pincers 
Pith 
Plait 
Poem 
Point 
Pother 
Precept 
Preface 
Prelude 
Process 
Product 
Progress 
Profile 
Pumpion 
Put 
Quoit 
Raisin 
Rapine 
*Rear 
Reptile 
Rid 
Rind 
Rinse 
Rosin 
Routine 



mAre^m^de 

m&iin'tn 

na'tsliQr 

nl'THttr 

A-blWje' 

i-bU^k' 

6f 

lie 

ftu'le or un'l^ 

pine'tdr 

plir'^nt 

pRrd'nSr 

pas'tshur 

pat'run 

p^nsh'urz 

p^i/i 

plWt 

p^^me 

pinte 

b&TH'5r 

pr^s'sept 

pr^'fAse 

prt^ylude 

pri's^s 

pr6'dukt 

pri'gres 

prA'flle 

pungk''in 

put (verb) 

kw4te 

ri'zn 

ra'pine 

rire 

r^p'tlle 

rgd 

rine 

rl,nse 

r&z'5m 

rS&'t^ne 



Orthography. 

Ague and fever 

Alternate 

Annunciate 

Andiron 

Antipodes 

Apparent 

Architecture 

Assumption 

Auxiliary 

Certiorari 

Christianity 

Clandestine 

Coadjutor 

Compendium 

Coaiu>isseur 



CED. 

mSi-'mide 

m8un'tin 

ni'tshure 

n^'THtir 

i-bHje' 

Sb-Hke' 

6v 

m 

hne'U 

pan'itAur 

pi'r^nt 

pait'nur 

pas'tshire 

pa'trun 

pin'sdrz 

fdh 

pUte 

pi'lm 

pSint 

puTH'Sr 

pr^.'s^pt 

prlf'fts 

prgl'^de 

prSs's^s 

prSd'fikt 

prSg'r^s 

prA-f^^l' 

pump^yun 

pfit 

kw5!t 

r^'zn 

rap'in 

x^h 

rgjytH 

r?d 

rind 

rinse 

rSz'jn 

rng-tiin' 



Orthogra- Improper. PRONOirw 



PHY. 

Roof 

Sacred 

Said 

Sat 

Says 

Scarce 

Schedule 

Shut 

Since 

Sit 

Sleek 

Sliver 

Slothful 

Soo* 

Spikenard 

Spoil 

Steelyard 

Stamp 

Stiiit 

Sword 

Synod 

Therefore 

Thill 

To 

Tour 

Treble 

Towards 

Trophy 

Tuesday 

Verdure 

Vizier 

Volume 

Were 

Yea 

Yes 

Yest 

Yet 

You 

Youth 



Improper. 

i,wl-t?r'nate 

an-nun^shite 

hand'l-(irn 

Sn't^-pMz 

ap-par'^nt 

Srtsh'i-tgk-tshdr 

as-sump'shun 

dwks-il'a-r^. 

sash-Sr-ar'ur 

kris-tshan'^-t4 

klan-d^s'tine 

k(S4d'ji!i-tt5r 

kftm-p^n'd^-Sm 

kftn-nls-silire' 



r6fr 

sSk'rgd 

sAde 

sh 

size 

skSrse 

sk^d'ile 

shgt 

sinse 

sh 

silk 

sliv'vfir 

sfit 

spjg'nul 

spile 

stil'yurdz 

stomp 

stint 

swird 

si'nSd 

TH^re'fire 

f?l 

ti 

tsar • 
tl-lb'bl 

tft-w^rdz' 

trSPft 

tsh-iz'd^ 

vSr'jur 

vi'zhur 

vol'lum 

ware 

yes 

y^^st or ^^st 

yiith 
Pronounced. 

k'gh and ft'vfir 

al-tlr'nite 

an-n(in'sh^-dte 

ilnd'1-urn 

In-t.Ip'^-d^iz 

^p-pi'rlnt 

Ir'-k^-tgk-tshAre 

as-sSm'sh3n 

Swg-zil'ya-r^ 

s?r-sh^-6-rA'ri 

kr?s-tsh^4n'^-tA 

klan-dgs't?n 

kA-^d-ji'tur 

kSm-pln'j^-Sm 

k6-n€s-sW 



r35f 

sa'kr^d 

s2d 

sat 

s^z 

skArse 

sgd'jile 

shut 

sinse 

s?t . 

sl^^k 

sll'vSr 

slhth'm 

s55t 

spike'nSrd 

spSll 

st^^l yird 

stamp 

stint 

sird 

sin'ud 

TH^r'fire 

th\l 

toS 

t8Sr 

trlMrf 

ti^Srdz 

tri'f^ 

tize'd^ 

v^r'jure 

v'iz'yMr 

vfil'yAme 

w§r 

yf 

yrs 

ylst 

yit 

ySS 

yUth 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 



203 



Orthoorapht. 

Courteous 

Coverlet 

Cowardice 

Decrepit 

Demonstrate 

Desideratum 

Diamond 

Discrepance 

Disfranchise 

Dishonest 

Disorder 

Electrify 

Emaciate 

Expiatory 

Extempore 

Extraordinary 

Feminine 

Frequently 

Genuine 

Guardian 

Gymnastick 

Hallelujah 

Hospital 

Humorous 

Idea 

Ignoramus 

Indecorous 

Irradiate 

Literati 

Maintenance 

Masculine 

Mercantile 

Meliorate 

Museum 

National 

Nomenclature 

Nominative 

Obedience 

Obstreperous 

Octavo 

Oratory 

Parentage 

Partiality 

Patronage 

Patriarch 

Patriot 

Patriotism 

Philologist 

Philosophy 

Philosophical 

Plagiarism 



Possessive 
Possession 
Preventive 



Incorrect. 

kiSre't^-us 

kSvar-lM 

k5a'&rd-lse 

d,l>-krlp'Td 

d^jn'&n-strite 

d^-sW-gr-at'Qin 

dl'm&nd 

dfs-krgp'4n-si 

dis-fran'tshlze 

dis-6n'§st 

dis-Sr'dur 

^-Igk'tSr-lze 

^-mi'shite 

gks-pll-t6-r^ 

^ks-tgm'pire 

gks-tra-&r'di-na-r^ 

f^m'^-nlne 

fr^k'wgnt-1^ 

j^n'i-lne 

glr-d^^n' 

glm-nas'dk 

h^l-U-hVja 

h6s'pit-al 

hA'mur-us 

i-di' 

ig-ni-r|m'u3 

in-dSk'^-rSs 

fr-r^'^-ite 

nt-ir4t'l 

m^ne-t^ne'anse 

nils'ki-llne 

mur^kan-tUe ^ 

mur-kan-t^el' > 

m5r-kan't^l ) 

m^AH-rkte 

mu'z^-um 

na'shun-al 

ni-min'kla-ture 

nSm'^-t'v 

ftb-strop/pu-lus 

ftk-t^'vi 

6r'i-t6-r^ 

pi'r?nt-ije 

pJr-shal'li-t4 

pi'trun-aje 

pat'r^-Rrk 

plt'r^.at 

pSt'ri-ut-!zm 

fl-lSl'li.i?st 

fU6s'i-fi 

riib-smk-ii 

pli'ga-r?zm 

pos-sis' 

p&s-ses'sfv 

p^s-s^sh'un 

Pr»^-vgnt'4-tiv 



Pronounced. 

kSr'tshi-Ss 

kSv'ftr-ia 

kM'ard-?s 

d^-krSp'it 

d^-m&n'strite 

d^,-sid4-r4'tum 

dl'l-mund 

d?s'kr^panse 

dis-fran'tsliiz 

d?z-6n'g3t 

d]z-5r'dSr 

^-Igk'tr^-fi 

^-ma'sh^-4te 

^ks'p^-i-tur-r^ 

^ks-t§m'p6-r^ 

^ks-tr&r'd^-na-r^ 

f§m'^-nln 

fr^'kw^nt-l^. 

j^n'iiMn 

gyar'd^-an 

JTm-nas'tik 

h?il-l^-l5S'ya 

fts'pe-tal 

vA'mfir-us 

i-d^'a 

?g-nA-ra'ni33 

In-d^-ki ras 

lr-ra'd^4te 

nUr-kM 

m^n't^-nlnse 

mas'ki-Hn 

mIr'kln-tH 

mM^-^-rate 

mu-z^'dm 

nSsh'un-al 

n6m-§n-kla'tsh'i.r» 

nftm'^-na-t?v 

ob-str^p'er-Ss 

8k-t^'vi 

or'^tSr-r^ 

par'^nt-iip 

par^sh^4l'U-t^ 

pat'run-?je 

pi'tr^4rk 

p4'tr^-5t 

p4'tr^-fit-1zm 

f^-l&Wi-j!8t 

r^-l5s'i-f^ 

f!l-6-zSf ^-ka 

pli'ja-rfzm 

pSz-z^s' 

pSz-zSs'sfv 

p5z-z5sh'An 

pri-vSnffv 



204 



CORRECTIONS IN ORTLOEPY. 



Orthographt* 

Pronunciation 

Propitiation 

Prophecy 

Prophesy 

Radiance 

Ratio 

Rational 

Sacrameat 

Sacrifice 

Stereotype 

Stupendous 

Synonyme 

Synonyma 

Transparent 

Transparency 

Verbatim 

Volcano 

Whiffletree 



. Incorrect. 
pr6-nun-s^~ii'sh5n 
pr A-p!s-A-a'sh an 
pr6v'^-sl (noun) 
pr6v'^-s' (verb) 
rad'^-anse , 
ri'sh?. 
ra'shSn-al 
s4'kra-mlnt 
sA'kr^-flze or (f is) 
stSr'i-tIpe 
sti-pen'du-Ss ) 
stA-p?.n'jus \ 
s^-n&n'^-ra^ 
s^-nftn'^-mlz 
trans-p^r'^nt 
trS,ns-par'gn-si 
v§r-bat'im 
vSl-ki'n^ 
hw?p'pl-tr^ 



Pronounced. 

prA-nSn-shi-a'shSu 

pr6~p?sh4-^'shSii 

prftf^-s^ (noun) 

r>roP^-si (verb) 

ra'd^-aase 

rh'shA-h 

rash'un-lkl 

s^k'ra-mSnt 

slk'r^-fizo 

st^'r^-c^-tlpe 

stu-pSn'dus 

sin'6-nim 

s^-n&n'^-m^ 

trlns-p^'r^nt 

trans-pa'rSn-s4 

ver-ba'tim 

vM-kVni 

hwIPfl-tr^A 



Note. 1. — ^When the words learned, blessed, loved, S^c. are used as partici 
pial adjectives, the termination ed should generally be pronounced as a sepa- 
"ate syllable ; a«, "A learn-ed man ; The bless-ed Redeemer ;" but when 
they are employed as verbs, the ed is contracted in pronunciation; as, " He 
learn' d his lesson ; They are lov^d ; I have ivaWd." 

2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables expressed in 
f he if (fZicfc characters i Eu ro pe an, hy me ne al, Ce sa re a, co ad ju tor, ep i cu- 
re an, in ter est ed, in ter est ing, rep a ra ble, rec og nise, leg is la ture, ob li- 
ga to ry, in com par a ble, ir rep a ra ble, in ex o ra ble. In a large class of 
words, the vowels a, e, and ai, should be pronounced like long a inlate; such 
a3,/«re, rare, there, their, rohere, air, chair, compare, declare, &c. In the words 
person, perfect, mercy, interpret, determine, and the like, the vowel e before r, 
is often erroneously sounded like short u. Its proper sound is that of e in 
met, pet, imperative. 

3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words sJcy, kind, guide, &c. it 
appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is believed that their com-, 
mon pronunciation by the vulgar, is the correct one, and agreeable to thepro' 
nunciation intended by Mr. John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds 
m skM, kylnd, gylde, are adopted by the common mass, and perverted 
by those who, in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these 
words, say, sk^-1, k^-!nde, g^-tde. This latter mode of .pronouncing them 
m two syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words 
boil, toil, in two syllables; thus, b5-?l, tS-ll. 

4. My, wind, pour. When my is contrasted with thy, his, her, ymir, &c. it 
is pronounced, mi : in all other situations, it is pronounced, mi ; as, " My [me] 
son, give ear to my [me] counsel." When loihd ends a line in poetry, and is 
made to rhyme viHith mind, bind, kind, &c. it is pronounced, wind jbut, iu 
other situations, it is pronounced, wind. 

" Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 
" Sees God in clouds, or hears him m the loind." 
Pour. Analogically, the diphthong ou, in this word, has its proper sound; as 
in hSfir, shhx. 

" Ye heavens ! from high the dewy neetar pour 
" And in soft silence shed the kindly shower." 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



to& 



PROVIXCIAJLISMS, 

CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES. 
»mbefou„dusefdi„thedWric.stowh'bh.hev?rl'Xrr^^^^^^^ 



CORRECT. 
V^J^tshA 

v^r'tshA-Sa 

llk'tshA4l 

^d'jA-kAte 

weight 
porch 
. task 
handle 
disorder 
unload 
swing 

gig or chaise 
one-horse sleigh 
sapling 
reddish 
spry or supple 

Pennsylvania. 

strength 

length 

breadth 

ought 

what 

wisli 

once 

oh 

chair 

ghost 

opposite 

vanity 

in vain 

ordinary 

to spare 
small piece 

do not remenabei 
Irish. 
dAre 
flAra 
and 

mz 

kArse 
sArse 

m 
pdt 



tliPAOPtoft 


CORRKCT. 


IMPROPER. 


Aint 


Are not 


vSr'tAw 


haint 


have not 


vAr'tAw-Ss 


taint 


'tis not 


4k'tAw-gl 


baint 


are not 


^d'Aw-kite 


maint 


may not 


faTH'ur 


Mront 


will not 


heft 


wer'nt 


were not 


stoop 


w^aunt 


was not 


stent 


wooden* 


would not 


helve 


mussent 


must not 


muss 


izzent 


is not 


dump 

scup 

chaise 


wazzent 


was not 


hezzent 


has not 


doozzent 


does not 


cutter 


tizzenf 


»tis not 


staddle 


wheel 


who will 


foxy 




don»t 


suple 




can't 
i'U 


In 

Strenth 




'tis 


lenth 


Common 


IN New-England or 


brenth 




New-York. 


ort 


Akst 


Sskt 


nan 


bin 


b?n 


wisht 


h&l 


hAle 


wunst 


h3m 


home 


ouch 


BtSn 


stAne 


cheer 


dUz 


dSz 


spook 


gl^sa 


glJss 


furnentz 


mSss 


mass 


wanity 


brass 


brass 


in wain 


piss 
flawnt 


p4ss 
knt 


ornary 
for by 


hfz'zn 


h?z 


we bit 


hAft'zn 


hSflz'lz 


disremember 


Sn'shint 


Ane'tshgnt 




Sn'jgl 
•♦rln'jSr 


Ane'jgl 

dine'jSr 

strAne'j5r 


DAAr 
flSAr 
tnd 


iKlOtm'bar 


tshAme^Sr 


Iftsa 


ni-tar 
nit'tii^l 


nA'tshAre 

nJtsh'A-rll 

fMshAne 


lUsH 

kSArse 
sAArse 
t?il 


•Ai'tiw-n&te 


fAr'tshA-nAte 


put 



206 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



Improper. 


Correct. 


fSt 


tSt 


S.k55ntf 


Jk-k?.?mt' 


pai'p-it 


pai'pit 


p4re so a 


p^r'sn 


Md. Va. 


Ky. Miss.&c. 


TH^r 


THare 


whl,r 


hware 


bar [bear] 


hkve 


war 


wgr 



Improper. 

gwlne 
shSt or shSt 

t6te or fStch 

htSp'd 

cl-hSSt' 

mB.r'bl 



Correct. 

mite [might] 

gA'^ng 

rid 

kltr^r^,fltsh, or 

bring 

hglpt 

pirt'nur-shfp 

m83v Sir 



Note. Clever, pretty, ugly, mrims, expect, guess, and reckon, though cor 
rect English words, have, aniong the common people of New-England anfl 
New- York, a provincial application and meaning. With them, a clever man, 
'sone of a gentle and obhging disposition ; instead of, a man of distinguish- 
ed talents and profound acquirements. Pretty and ugly, they apply to the 
disposition of a person, instead of, to his^xternal appearance. In these siates, 
one will often hear, "I gitess it rains," when the speaker knows this to be a 
fact, and, therefore, guessing is uncalled for. " I expect I can go ;" or, " I 
reckon I can ;" instead of, " I suppose or presume.''^ In New-England, a 
clergyman is often called a minister, in New- York, a priest, and south of 
N. Y^ a. parson. The last is preferable. 



NEW-ENGLANI) OR NEW-YORK. 

I be goin. He hves to hum. 
Hese ben to hum this two weeks. 
You haddent ought to do it. Yes 
had ought. 
Taint no better than hizzen. 
Izzent that are line writ well ? 
Tizzent no better than this ere. 

The keows be gone to hum, neow, 
and I'mer goin arter um. 

He'll be here, derights, and bring 
yourn and thairn. 

He touch'd the stun which I shew 
him, an di guess it made him sithe, for 
'twas cissing hot. 

Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for 
to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter 
go, daddy. 
Where shell I dump my cart, square ? 
Dump it yender. Whats the heft of 
your load ? 

When ju git hum from Hafford ? 
A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye ? 
Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a 



CORRECTED. 

I am going. He lives at home. 

He has been at home these 2 weeks. 

You ought not to do it. Certainly I 
ought. 

'Tw no better than has. 

Is not that line well icritten ? 

It is no better, or, it is not any bet 
ter than this. 

The cows are gone home, and / am 
going after them. 

He will be here, directly, and bring 
yours and theirs. 

He touched the stone which I shewed 
him, and it made him sigh, for it was 
hissing hot. ■ 

Go, Nathaniel, and cut a sopKng-, to 
make a lever of. \ was about to go, 
or, intending to go immediately, father. 

Where shall I unload m}; cart ? Yon- 
der. What is the weight of your load? 

When did y mi return from Hartford 7 
A fortnight ago. Is it possible ! Did 
you see my son Daniel, xoho has opened 



tarvern there ? No. Hede gone afore a publick house there ? No. He had left 
. > xi /% ^1 1 !. . jjgig before I arrived! there. O, the paltry 

felloio ! He will soon come to nought. 
My friend'' s superb mansion is de- 
lightfuUy situated on a natural mound 
of considerable height. It has a long 
porch in front ; but it '\s farther from the 
city than I would like to reside. 

I knew the girl had been drowned^ 
ajftd I told the jury of inquest, that I was 



I got there. 0, the pesky criter ! 
soon be up a stump. 

My frinds supurb mansion is de- 
lightfully sitewated on a nate-eral 
mound of considerable hithe. It hez 
a long stoop in front ; but it is furder 
from the city than I'de hke my hum. 

I know'd the gal was drownded, 
«nd I tell'd the inquisitioners, that izc 



PROVINCIALISMS. 



207 



I 



NEW-ENGLAND. 

ttither geestin nor jokin about it ; but 
if they'd permit me to giv em my 
ideze, they'd obleege me. So I par- 
severed, and carried my pinte. You 
don't say so. Be you from Barkshire ? 
I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean 
heat. 

You baint from the Jaiseys, be ye ? 
Yes. Gosh ! then I guess you kneow 
heow to tend tarvern. 

IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

I seen him. Have you saw him ? 
Yes, I have saw him vninst ; and that 
was before you seed him. 

I done my task. Have you did 
yours ? No, but I be to do it. 

I be to be there. He know'd me. 

Leave me be, for Ime afear'd. 
I never took notice to it. 

I wish I haddent did it ; howsum- 
"^ever, I dont keer : they cant skeer 
me. 

Give me them there books. 

He ort to go ; so he ort. 

No he orten. 

Dont scrouge me. 

I diddent go to do it. 

Aint that a good hand write ? 

Nan ? I know'd what he meant, but 
I never let on. 

It is a long nule to town. Ah ! 
thought 'twas unle a short mile. 
Irish. 

Not here the day; he went till 
Pittsburgh. 

Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. 

Where did you loss it ? 

Md. Va, Ky. or Miss. 

Carry the horse to water. 

Tote the wood to the river. 
Have you focht the water ? 

I've made 200 bushels of com this 
year. 

He has run aginst a snag. 

Is that vour plunder, stranger ? 

He will soon come of that habit. 

I war thar, and I seen his boat was 
oadend too heavy. 
Whar you gwine ? 
Heae in cohoot with me. 
Did you get shet of your tobacca ? 

Who hoped you to sell it ? 



CORRECTED. 

not jesting about it , but, by permitting 
me to give them my view of the subject, 
they woidd oblige me. So, I persever 
ed, and gained my point. Indeed ! Are 
you from Berkshire 1 I am. Really ! I 
am surprised. 

Are you from J^eio-Jersey ? Yes. 
Then I presume you know how to tend a 
tavern. 

CORRECTED. 

I saw him. Have you seen him ? 
Yes, once ; and that was before you 
saw him. 

I have done my task. Have you 
done yours ? No, but I must. 

~ shall be there ; or, I must be there. 
He knew me. 

Let me be, for I am afraid, 

I never took notice of it : or, better 
thus, I never noticed it. 

I wish I had not done it : however, I 
disregard them. They cannot scare 
me. 

Give me those books. 

He ought to go, really. ^ 

He might not. 

Don't crowd me. 

I did not intend to do it. 

Is not that beaadiful wnting 7 

What 7 I knew what he meant, but 
I kept thai to myself. 

It is a little over a mile to town. Ah! 
I supposed it to be less than a mile. 

CORRECTED. 

He is not here to-day. He went to 
Pittsburgh. 

Let us parse a little. 
Where did you lose it ? 

CORRECTED. 

Lead the horse to water ; or, water 
the horse. 

Cairy the wood to the river. 

Have you fetched, or brought, the 
water ? 

I have raised 200 bushels of com 
this year. 

He has got into difficidty. 

Is that your baggage, sir ? 

He will soon overcome, or get rid of, 
that habit. 

I was there, and I saw that his boat 
was too heavily laden, or loaded. 

Where are you going ? 

He is in partnership with me. 

Did you get rid, or dispose of, youi 
tobacco ? 

Who helped you to sell it ? 



^8 PROSODY. 

PROSODY. 

PftdJsoDY treats of the modulations of the voice 
according to the usages of the language we speak, 
and the sentiments we wish to express : hence, 
in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the 
laws of elocution. 

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts : 
the first teaches the true pronunciation of words, 
coniprising accenU quantity, emphasis, pause, and 
tone ; and the second, the laws of versification, 

Accent, Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voic© 
on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better 
heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word 
'presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and 
the second syllable, smne, which syllable takes the accent. 

Every word of more syllables than one, has oiie accented 
syllable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long 
word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another sylla 
ble besides the one which takes the principal accent ; as, tes h 
mo' nVal, a ban! don ^ing. 

Quantity, The quantity of a syllable is that time whicK is 
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; 
which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the 
following letters ; as, " Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the eonsonatit , 
which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding 
letter : as, " ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one in pronouncing it ; thus, " mate" and *' note" should be 
pronounced as slowly again as *' mat" and " not." 

Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound 
of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they 
affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatick words 
must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as 
by a greater stress. 
Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution. 

Pauses, Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, arie a total 
cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in hiany ca^es, 
a measurable space of time. 
Tonfis. Tones are different both from emohasis and pauses ; con- 



PUNCTUATION. 209 

sisting in the modulations of the voice, or the notes or variations 
of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments 
Emphasis affects particular words and phrases ; but tones 
affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse- 



rVNCTlJATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written com 
position into sentences or parts of sentences, by 
points or stops, in order to mark the different 
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronun- 
ciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon^ a 
pause double tnat of the comma ; the Colony double that of the 
semicolon ; and the Period^ double that of the colon. 

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted 
with the use of points ; and wrote, not only without any distinction of mern- 
bei*s and periods, btit also without any distinction of words. This custom 
continued till the year 360 before Christ. Hoav the ancients read their 
works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice 
of joininor words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at 
the end of ev^ry word. This practice continued a considerable time. 
■ As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place whilst 
manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods ot 
convej'ing knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the 
art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual : all the points 
did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were 
produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used» 
became established, when learning and refinement had made considerable 
progress. 

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the 
grammatical construction of sentences, their apphcation pre- 
supposes, on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax, 
Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual ex- 
ercise of judgment and literary taste in applymg them properly, 
they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention. 

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of 
punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its 
rules, is established by the single fact, that the meaning of a sen- 
tence is often totally perverted by the omission or misajjplication 
0f points. To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numer- 
ous examples might be selected. The following border on the 
ridiculous : " Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, 
desires the prayers of this church ;" " Tryon, who escaped 

18* 



210 PUNCTUATION. 

from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, 
light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet 
high, &c." Corrected ; '' Mr, Jared Hurton having gone to sea, 
his wife desires the prayers of this church ;" *' thin visage, with 
a short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c." 

Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is neces 
sary for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct^ a sim 
pie sentence, and a compound sentence. 

An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does 
not amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" 
" studious of praise ;" " in the pursuit of commerce." — For the 
definition of a sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to 
page 119. 

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in 
the same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, 
the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many 
simple ones as there are adjuncts ; " as, " They have sacrificed 
their health 'dnd fortune, at the shrine of vanity, pride, and extra 
vaganceJ*^ But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb 
in a different manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " Grass of an 
excellent quality, is produced in great abundance in the northern 
regions of our country." 

COMMA. 

RUIiE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in 
general, be separated by a comma ; as, " Every part of matter 
swarms with living creatures." 

Exercises in Punctuation. — Idleness is the great fomenter of all cornip- 
tions in the human hca.v. The friend of order has made half his way to 
virtue. All tinery is a sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nomina- 
tive IS accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, 
it may admit a comma immediately before the verb ; as, " Tho 
good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect 
the cultivation of the English language ;" " Too many of the 
pretended friendships of youth, are mere combinations in 
pleasure." 

Exercises.- The indulgence of a ha:rsh disposition is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or Censure is a real defect 
in character. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a 
simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the 
adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it ; 
as, ^* His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, thert" 



PUNCTUATION 211 

/bi'f, not much approved." But when these interruptions ar« 
slight and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma ; a«, 
** Flattery is certainly pernicious ;" " There is surely a pleasure 
th beneficence.'' 

Exercises. — Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is 
in truth the ^rcat avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too havfe your failings, 
rtumility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance un- 
der costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice 
should be seasonably administered. No assumed behaviour can always 
hide the real character. 

RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in 
apposition when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguish- 
ed by commas ; as, *' My son, give me thy heart ;" *' Dear Sir^ 
I write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses ;" " I 
am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours ;" " Paul, 
the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and know- 
ledge;" " The butterjiij, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 

But if two nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, 
or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated ; 
as, " Paul the apostle, suffered martyrdom ;" " The statesman 
Jefferson, wrote the declaration of Independence," 

Exercises. — TiOrd thou hast been otir dwelling place in all generations. 
Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou._expect 
ihou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance ? Death tlr? 
king of terrours chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us 
under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was exn- 
mently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious exam- 
ple of true piety. 

RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive 
mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words de- 
pending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may 
be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " His father dying, he 
succeeded to the estate ;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault;" 
" The king, approving- the plan, put it in erxecution ;" " He, 
hdvhig finished his academical course, has returned homer; to 
prosecute his professional studies^ 

. Exercises. — ^Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. 
To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation^ His 
talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering feim conspic- 
ijtous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant 
spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family 
assembled under the eye of one common Father. 

j ilULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple 
ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The 
decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our 
Bpirits, and suggest a ixtm of serious reflections. ' 



212 PUNCTUATION. 

Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or ad- M 
verbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood," * 
must be separated by commas ; as, *' The husband, wife,* and 
children,! suffered extremely ;" " In a letter, we may advise, 
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss ;" " David was a brave 
wise, and pious man ;" " A man, fearing, serving, and loving his 
Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" " Success generally de* i 
pends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what wi, | 
undertake." ! 

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, 
occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions un 
derstood, must be separated by commas ; as, " Reason, virtue 
answer one great aim ;" " Virtu er supports in adversity, moder 
ates in prosperity ;" " Plain, honest truth, needs no artificia 
covering ;" " We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." 

Exercises. — We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of tho 
mutability of the world. Sensuality cnntaininates the body depresses the 
understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a 
youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder 
brother. The man of virtue and honour will be trusted relied upon and 
esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. 
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true 
lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking 
are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great business 
of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking humbly 
with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the 
whole of our duty. 

In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of 



* The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so obvious, 
as to render it not a little surprising, that any icriter, possessing the least 
degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I am bold to affirm, that it is 
observed by every correct reader and speaker ; and yet, strange as it may 
seem, it is generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear, 
and all others who are influenced by their pernicious example ; thus, 
" The head, the heart and the hands, should be constantly and actively 
employed in doing good." Why do they not omit the comma where the 
conjunction is understood ? It would be doing no greater violence to the 
principles of elocution ; thus, " The head the heart and the hands, should 
be, &c." or thus, " The head the heart, and the hands, should be employ- 
ed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where the con- 
junction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where the conjunction 
13 understood? And, since this is the case, what fair objection can be 
made to the following method of punctuation ? " The head, the heart, and 
the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing good ;*" 
** She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious." 

t As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between the 
last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted*'to denote it ; but as 
no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between 
fche last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly 
onititted ; thus, " David was a brave, wise, and pioits man.'* 



PUNCTUATION. 218 

dteeay imperceptibly working. Deliberate rtowly exMuta promptly. An 
idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy 
person nad been seriously affectionately admonished but m Tain. 

Rule 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, 
and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning of 
whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense, 
should not be separated by a comma ; as, " Wisdom is better 
than riches ;" " No preacher is so successful as time ;" " He 
accepted what I had rejected ;" " Self-denial is the sacrifice 
which virtue must make ;" " Substract from many modern poets 
a// that may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain ;" 
" Give it to the man lohotri you most esteem." In this last ex- 
ample, the assertion is not of " man in general," but of " the 
hian whom you most esteem," 

But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma 
Is properly inserted before the relative ; as, " JVfaw, who is born 
of a woman, is of few days and full of trouble ;" " There is nO 
charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 

This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the 
relative is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you 
enjoy ;" that is, " privileges which you enjoy." 

Exercises. — How much better it is to get wisdom than gold ! The friend- 
ships of the world can fexist no longer than interest cements them. Eat 
what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur «ensure. 
A man ^ho is of a deti;acting spirit will misconstrue the most yjnocent 
Words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occil^bn our 
complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object ife 
its just proportion and in its fairest colours. In that unaffected civility which 
springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable charm. The Lord 
whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. 

RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected 
by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, 
** Libertines call religion, bigotry or superstition ;*^ " True 
Worth is modest and retired;" " The stud}^ of natural hiftory, 
expands and elevates thq mind ;" " Some rifen sin delibdirately 
and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, tlie 
pairs only should be separated ; as, " There is a natural dif- 
ference between merit and demeilt, virtue and vice, wisdom amd 
foliy ;" " Whether we eat or drink, labour or sl^p, we should 
be temperate " 

But if the parts connected by a conjunction ^r© not la^rf, 
they may be separated by a comma ; as, " Romances may be 
said to be miserable rhapsodies^ or datigerous incentives toei41.*^ 

Ertrins^B. — Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad paaaloas. 
Tn»e friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behaviour, health 
and peane a AV»derate fortune and a few friends sum up all thct undoubted 



214 PUNGTUATiON. 

articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless simple and sincere 
uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodJe» 
and the vigour oV our minds. 

RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, 
a comma may, in some instances, be inserted • as, " From law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, know- 
ledge." But in others, it is better to omit the comma ; " No sta- 
tion is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, 
as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and 
envy." 

Exercises. — As a companion he was severe and satirical j as a friend cap 
tious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer theiv' 
will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled away with 
out improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable. 

RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a 
preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive 
mood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, *' I suppose he is at 
rest ;" changed, " I suppose him to be at rest,^^ 

But when the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative 
case to it, the verb to be is generally separated from the infini- 
tive by a comma ; as, " The most obvious remedy is, to with' 
draw from all associations with bad men ;" "The first and most 
obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Exercises. — They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the 
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned 
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be con 
<Jemned by our own hearts. 

NOTES. 

1 "When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the mem 
ber to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a cam 
ma at each extremity ;' as, " They set out early, and, before the close of the 
day, arrived at the destined place." This rule, however, is not generally fot 
lowed by our best writers ; as, " If thou seek the Lord, he will be found oi 
thee ; but if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever ;" " But if the parta 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." 

2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and having 
a common dependance, may be divided by commas ; as, "To relieve the 
mdigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the 
deserving, are humane and noble employments. 

3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the form 
of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma ; as, "It hurts a 
man's pride to say, / do not know ;" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves,^ 

4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with sontA 
marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma ; as, 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 

" Strong, without rage ; witliout o^erJloioing,fiiIl* 
" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state^ are often found, not only in vmm 
toith, but ill opposition <o, the views and conduct of each other,'* 



PUNCTUATIOir. ^15- 

Sometimes wnen the word with which the last preposition agrees, la sin- 
gle, the comma may be omitted ; as, " Many states were in alliance with, 
»nd under the protection o/Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or moi-e nouns refer to 
jho same preposition ; as, " He was composed both under the threatening^ 
*iid at the approach^ of a. cruel and lingermg death ;" " He was not only the 
zing, but the father of his people." 

5. The words, " as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
low, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in 
sliort," and all other words and phrases of a similar kind, must generally 
oe separatefl from the context by a comma ; as, " Remember thy best friend ; 
formerly, the supporter of thy mfancy ; now, the guardian of thy youth ;" 
** He feai-ed waiit ; hence, he overvalued riches ;" " So, if youth be trifled 
away,"&c. "^^g-oin, we must, have food and clothing ;" '^Finally, let us 
woclude." 

The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is pre 
sunied, to suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the 
proper place for inserting the comma ; but in applying these 
ndes, great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the 
clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another. 

SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into 
two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which ai*e 
separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each otner, 
as those which are distinguished by a colon. 

RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does 
not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would 
be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; 
as in the following examples : "As the desire of approbation, 
when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part 
of our species ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when 
it is governed by vanity and folly ;" " The wise man is happy, 
when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the 
applause of those around him ;" " Straws swim upon the sur- 
face , but pearls lie at the bottom." 

Exercises. The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a 
perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of 
fierceness^and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God per- 
ceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honours 
which in his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which m 
tiis sight is fooUshncss. 

But all subsists by elemental strife 

And passions are the elements of life. 

RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule 
; or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunc- 
tion as ; as in the following instance : Prepositions govern the 
objective case ; as, " She gave the book to him." 



2:1ft PUNCTUATION. 

NoTB, In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuiita employ 
the ouloA, instead of the semicolon. 

COLOKT. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, 
less connected than those whicn are separated by a semicolon ; 
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustra- 
tipn of the subject, the colon may be properly employed ; as, 
***Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the conse- 
quences of guilt : the gospel revealed the plan of divine interpo- 
sition and aid." " Great works are performed, not by strength, 
but by perseverance : yonder palace was raised by single stones ; 
yet you see its height and spaciousness." 

Exeixises. The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice superstttion 
and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions 
superstition which fills it with imaginary' terrours idleness which loada it 
with tediousness and disgust. 

When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we be- 
hold there ? AH my^brethren is aWank to our view a dark unknown presents 
itself. 

RULE 2. Wlien a semicolon has preceded, or more than 
one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the 
connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; 
as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an 
almighty governour, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; 
informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous here- 
after, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these 
are the considerations which overawe the world, which support 
integrity, and check guilt." 

PERIOD* 
When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be 
connected with the one which follows it, a period should be in- 
serted at its close ; as, " Fear God." *' Honour the patriot." 
" Respect virtue." 

In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of prac- 
ace among our best writers and grammarians. Compound 
sentences connected by conjunctions, are sometimes divided by 
the period ; as, "Recreations, though they may be of an inno- 
cent kind, require steady government to keep them within a due 
and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and 
vicious nature, are not to be governed} but to be banished from 
erery well-regulated mind." 

The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, " A 
D. N. B. U. S. Va. Md. Viz. m. Mr." 



PUNCTUATION. 217 

DASH. 

Th« Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and inco- 
herent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is re- 
quired ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ; 
as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how 
fallen ! how degraded !" " If acting conformably to the will of 
our Creator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; 
— if securing our own happiness , — are objects of the highest 
moment : then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and ex- 
tend the great interests of religion and virtue." 

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater 
than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself, requires 
1 pause of such length as the sense only can determine. 

" Here hes the great — False marble, where 1 
" Nothing but sordid dust lies nere." 

INTERROGATORY FOINT. 

The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interroga- 
tive sentence ; as, " Who adorned the heavens with such ex- 
quisite beauty V 

Note. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where if 
IB only said, that a question has been asked ; as, " The Cyprians asked me, 
why I wept." 

EXCLAMATORY POINT. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations 
and addresses ; as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" 
" What is more amiable than virtue !" " My friend ! this con- 
duct amazes me !" " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness 
is great !" 

PARENTHESIS. 
A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark > 
which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical con- 
struction ; as, " To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a 
few letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." 
" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
" Virtue alone is happiness below." 

Note. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the 
voice ; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a pohii.. 
Ihe clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense v")'/!d 
cequire, if the parenthetical characters were not used. It ought to teri?^»- 
Date with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes Jt ; at, 
** He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealou.f when he iiius 
partners of love." 

19 



■HI 



2 1 S VERSIFICATION. 

Or why so long (in life if long can be) 
Heav'n a parent to the poor and 



" Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me ?" 

Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form ar» 
exception to this rule ; as, " If I grant his request, (and who could refuse 
t ?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment. 

APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION. 

The apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to> 
mark the possessive case of a noun ; as, " 'tis, for it is ; iho\ 
for though ; o'er, for over ;" " A man's poverty." 

A Quotation marks a sentence taken in che author's own 
language ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man." 

When an author represents a person as speaking, the lan- 
guage of that person should be designated by a quotation ; as, 
At my coming in, he said, " You and the physician are come 
too late." A quotation contained within another, should be dis- 
tinguished by two single commas ; as, " Always remember this 
ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a capital, 

1 The first word of every sentence. 

2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, 
"James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron ;" " God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit." 

3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, , 
nouns which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun j 
f and the interjection O, and every line in poetry ; as, " Amen- - 
can, Grecian, English. French; Irving's Sketch Book, Perci--; 
\al's Poems ; I write ; Hear, earth !" 



APPBiroiS. 



TERSIFICATIOI«". '«» 

Poetry is the language of passion, or of enhvened imagination. Jagt 
Versification, in English, is the harmonious arrangement i 
of a particular number and variety of accented and unaccented '""' 
syllables, according to particular laws. I""' 

Uhyme is the correspondence of the sound of the last syi a- 
Die hi one line, to the sound of the last syllable in another ; as, i 
"O'er the glad waters of the dark- blue sea, 
" Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as/ree." 
Blank Verse consists in poetical thoughts expressed in reg 
ular numbers, but without the correspondence of sound at thelisi 
end of the lines which constitutes rhyme. 

Poetical Feet consist in a particular arrangement and 
connexionof a number of accented and unaccented syllables. 



RHETORICK. 219 

Tliey are called /ee/, because it is by their aid that the voice, as 
it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables ; and are 
reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : 
Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

\. Trochee - v A Dactyle - ^ w 

An Iambus w - An Amphibrach v - w 

A Spondee An Anapaest ^ ^ - 

A Pyrrhick u ^ A Tribrach ^ ^ ^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac- 
cented ; as, Hateful, pettish : 

Restless mortals toil for nought. 
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- 
cented ; as, Betray, consist : 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay. 
A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the tvro latter 
unaccented ; as, Labourer, possible : 

From the low pleasilres of this fallen natiire. 
An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, Contravene, acquiesce : 

At the close of the day when the hamlet is still. 
A Spondee ; as. The pale moon : a Pyrrhick ; as, on thg tall 
tree : an Amphibrach ; as, Delightful : a Tribrach ; as, Nu- 
merable. 



RHETORICK, 

Grammar instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly . 
Rhetorick teaches us to express them with force and ele- 
gance. 

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in 
constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of 
words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most advan- 
tageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and 
qualities of composition. The principles of rhetorick are principally based 
on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar. Hence, an ac- 
quaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts, is a prerequi- 
ttte to the study of rhetorick and belles-lettres. 

COMPOSITION. 

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good 
sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who under- 
stands a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it. 

Rhetorick, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of good 
sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach 
hiro ^-9 embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid 
imagery, and an agreeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim, 
" To mark the point where peme and dulness meet." 



220 RHETORICK. 

STYIiE.— PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which we express our con- 
ceptions by means of language. It is a picture of the ideas 
which rise in our minds, and of the order in which they are pro- 
duced. 

The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads, 
perspicuity and ornament. 

Perspicuity, which is considered the fundamental quality 
of a good style, claims attention, first, to single words and phra- 
ses ; and, secondly, to the construction of sentences. When 
considered with respect to words and phrases, it requires these 
three qualities, purity, py^oprietyj and precision. 

Purity of language consists in the use of such words and such 
constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in op- 
position to words and phrases belonging to other languages, or 
which are obsolete or new-coined, or employed without preperi 
authority. ! 

Propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage 
has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by 
them. It implies their correct and judicious appUcation, in op-| 
position to low expressions, and to words and phrases which) 
would be less significant of the ideas which we wish to conrey. 
It is the union of purity and propriety, which renders style grace- 
ful and perspicuous. 

Precision, from prcecidere, to cut off, signifies retrenchinor a!1' 
superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to 
exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas; 
intended to be conveyed. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance 
in every species of composition, that we cannot be too strict oii 
minute in our attention to it. 

Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid many short or long sen-i 
tences in succession ; a monotonous correspondence of one member to ano- 
ther; and the commencing of a piece, section, or pa'-agraph, with along 
sentence. 

The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are Uniiyy 
Clearness, Strength, and Harmony. 

Unity is an indispenspible property of a correct sentence. A| 
sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one pro- 
position is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts ; but 
these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make 
on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only 
one. In order to preserve this unity^ tne following rules may be 
useful. 

1. In the comae of the setUmce, the 9cme should be changed as Utile aa^os^ 



STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 22 

kfe. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if 
» ■)ssible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The 
toHowing sentence is not constructed according to this rule : " After wo 
came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friendsr 
who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though thv. 
objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently tjfie place and 
the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, I, and who, they appear in so dis- 
united a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence 
is restored to its pioper unity by constructing it thus: " Having come to 
anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who 
received me with the greatest kindness." 

2. Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that 
they would bear to he divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this 
rule produces so unfavourable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too 
many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused. 

3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses. 
Clearness. Ambiguity, which is opposed to clearness, may 

arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. 

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that those 
words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sen- 
tence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make theh 
mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed, 

1. In the position of adverbs. " By greatness," says Mr. Addison, " I do 
not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole 
view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders 
it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qual- 
ify the phrase, a single object; thus, "By greatness, I do not mean th 
bulk of any sii.gle object only, but the largeness of a whole view." 

2. In the position of phrases and members. "Are these, designs which an» 
man who is born a Briluii, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to 
be ashamed or afraid to avow V Corrected : "Are these designs which any 
rnan who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstan 
ees, in any situation, to avow ?" 

3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, 
should always be so clear that we cannot possibly nristake it : otherwise the 
noun ought to be repeated. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of hfe, by heaping up treasures, wliich nothing can protect us 
against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this 
sentence, grammatically refers to treasures; and this would convert the 
whole periwi into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus const me- 
ted, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves 
against the accidents of life, ao-ainst which nothing can protect us but the 
good providence of our Heavenly Father." 

Strength. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an 
arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the 
isense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member 
its due weight and force. 

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from 
it dl redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the 
mind, should generally be omitted ; thus, " Content with deserving a triumph, 
he refused the honour of it," is better than to say, " Being content with de- 
•erving a triumph," &c. " They returned back again to the same city from 
whence they came forth." If we expunge from this short sentence fix* 
words whicn are mere expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible ; 
scjil'lhtt*. " They returned to the city whence they came." But wc should 1/9 

19* 



222 RHETORICK. 

cautioua of pruning so closely as to give? a hardness and diyness to tiie styfc; 
Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. 

2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles 
employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions ol an 
elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudicious 
repetition of and enfeebles style ; but vt^hen enumerating objects which we 
wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeat- 
ed with peculiar advantage ; thus, " Such a man may fall a victim to pow 

; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." 

3. Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which 
they will maJce the most striking iinpression, 

4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on Hsing in their importance one 
^bove another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally 

the concluding one. 

5. Avoid concluding a sentence loith an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsid- 
erable word, unless it be emphatical. 

6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other^ a resemblance 
in. the language and construction shoidd be observed. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

Figures of Speech may be described as that language whicb 
:^ ^>rompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They 
;i; lerally imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; 
a:s>i exhibit ideas in a manner more vi^^d and impressive, than 
could be done by plain language. Figures have been common- 
ly divided into two great classes ; Figures of Words^ and Fig- 
ures of Thought. 

Figures of Words are called Trop?s, and consist in a word's 
being employed to signify something that is different from its 
original meaning ; so that by altering the word, we destroy the 
figure. 

When we say of a person, that he has a tine taste in wines, the word taste 
is used in its common, literal sense ; but when we say, he has a fine fasf«M||^' 
Tor painting, poetry, or musick, we use the word figuratively. " A g^ood marv 
enjoys comfort in the inidst of adversity," is simple language ; but when it 
i^ said, " To the upriglit there anseth light in tZar/me.s5," the same sentiment 
is CApressed in a figurative stjde, light is put in the place of comfort, and 
darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity. 

The following are the most important figures : 

1 . A Metaphor is founded on the resemblancf; which one 

object bears to another ; or, it is a comparison in an abridged 

form. 

When I say of some great minister, " That he upholds the state like a 
pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I f&vAy mike a compar- 
ison ; but when I say of such a minister, " That ho is th'j pillar of state," the 
word pillar becomes a mofaphor. In the latter constractJonj the compart- 
son between the minister and a pillar, is made in tne mi id j but it is exv 
'ves&ed without arky of the words that denote comp»t«i3on. % 



1 



FIGURES OF SF££CH. 223 

Metaphors abound in all wntmgs. In the scriptures they may be found 
in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c. j 
and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, 
dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. 

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American 
Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs 
the following beautiful metaphor : " The proud pillar of their independence 
has been shaken down, and the whole moral /aftncA; lies in ruins.'* 

2. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; 
or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as 
frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a 
single metaphor, in the same manner that acluster on the vine 
differs from a single grape. 

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm ; 
wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : 
" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathec 
and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to takt 
deeo root, ancj it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow oi 
it ; and tiie boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her 
boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river." 

3. A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance be- 
tween tWO objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in 
form. 

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like 
those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs 
hdve been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, 
sj the Lord is round about his people." " The musick of Caryl was like the 
memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." " Our 
Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which 
wither when exposed to the influence of the sun." 

" The Assyrian can^c down, like the wolf on the fold, 
A»id his cohorts were gleauiing wdth purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of thfir spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." 

4. A Metonymy is vvhere the cause is put for the effect, or 
the effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; 
or the sign for the thing signified. 

"NVhen we say, " They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, mean 
ing " Milton'sicorAis." " Gray hairs should be respected ;" here the effect 
is put for the cause ; meaning by " gray hairs," old age, which produces 
gray hair^- In the phrase, " The kettle boils," the container is substituted 
for the tlui/g contained. " He addressed tlie chair ;" that is, the person in 
the chair. 

5. A v/i'NECDocHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is 
put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or 
a species for a genus ; in general, when any thing lesa, or any 
thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is calU 
cd a Synecdoche. 

Thus^ "A fleet of twenty nail, instead of, skips^ " The h&rse is a noble 
animal ;" " The dog is a faithful creature :" here an individual is put for the 
sp*'cie8. We sometimes use the " head" for tho perso7i, a»d the " w'iv<.'»'*' 
(or the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be ])iit foT a subject; e^ 
" Y<»'\>>" for the ymms;. tire "deep" for the sea. 



HHVW 



224 RHETORICK. 

6. Personification orPRosopoP(EiA is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, 
" the ground thirsts for rain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty ;" 
when we speak of" ambition's being res//e55," or, " a disease's 
being deceitful ;" such expressions show the facility, with which 
the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to 
things that are inanimate. 

The following are fine examples of this figure : 
" Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles ;" 
** The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them ; and the 
desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 

7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person, either ab- 
sent or dead, as if be were present and listening to us. The ad- 
dress is frequently made to a personified object ; as, " Death is 
swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O 
p'ave ! where is thy victory ?' 

" Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore ; bend thy fair 
head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves 
in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven." 

8. Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, 
antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. 

Example. " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
st-ores, but to diminish his desires.'''' 

9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration consists in magnifying an 
object beyond its natural bounds. " As swift as the wind ; as 
white as the snow ; as slow as a snail ;" and the like, are ex- 
travagant hyperboles- 

" I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his 
shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shoie, like a cloud of mist on the 
hills." 

10. Vision is produced, when, in relating something that is 
past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually pass- 
ing before our eyes. 

11. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation, is to 
ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, whatevei 
they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally 
put in the form of a question. 

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak : " The Lord is not man, that 
he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it ? 
and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it 
good ?" " Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice 
Bke him ?" 

12. Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions, such ag 
surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. 

" that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men !" " 
&at I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away, and be at rest •" 



KEY TO THE BXERCISES. 225 

13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a mannei contrary to 
jur thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to 
our remarks. We can reprove one for his neghgence, by say- 
mg, "You have taken great care, indeed." 

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of 
Baal to prove the truth of their deity. •' He mocked them, and said, Cry 
aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a 
journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked." 

14. Amplification or Climax consists in heightening all the 
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place 
in a strong light. 

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, " It is a crime 
to out a Roman citizen in bonds : it is the height of guilt to scourge him ; 
little less than parricide to put him to death : what name, then, shall I give 
to the act of crucifying him ?" 



KEY, 



Corrections of (he False Syntax arranged under the Rules and 

JVotes. 

I*.*.!" 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains 
bntfe been i-l-'en, &c. — is seldom found. The sincere e$re, &«^ — »• happy. 
>VTiat avail, &c. — Disappointments sink — the renewal of hope gives, &c. — is 
without limit, has been conferred upon us. — Thou canst not heal — but thou 
mayst do, &c. — cmisists the happiness, &.c. — ^Who tmchedsty or didst toftich 
Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

J^ote 1. And xoilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ? — And who had great 
abilities, &c. 

J^ote 2. *Are peace and honour. — teas controversy. 

Rule 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned. — he who 
preached repentance, &c. — Ihey who died. — he who succeeded. 

Rule 8. Time and tide wait, &c. — remove mountains. — are both uncer- 
tain. — dwell with, &c. — affect the mind, &jc. — What signijy the counsel and 
care, &c. — are now perished. — ^\^^hy are whiteness and coldness, &c. — bind 
them continually, &c. — render theit possessor, &c. — Tnere are errour and 
discrepance — which show, &c. 

Rule 9. /* the sajne in idea. — is in the porphyry. — is remarkable, &c. — 
which moves merely as it is moved. — affects us, &c. — Man's happiness or 
misery is, m a great measure &c. — for it may be, &e. — was blameworthy. 

Rule 10. The nation t« powerful. — The fleet was seen, &c. — The church 
has, &c. — is, or ought to be, the object, &c. — it is feeble. 

Rule 11. My people do &c. — The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as 
their, &c — were diviaed in their sentiments, and they have referred, &e. — The 
people rejoice — give them sorrow. 

Rule 12. Homer^s works are &c. — ^sa^s heart. James HarVs book. 

Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, &c. or. It was the lot of 
the men, women, and children. — Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c. 

lAToie 2. This is Campbell the poet'a production ; or, The production, oj 
Campbell, ^c. — The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haber- 
i IS her. 

^ote 4. The pupifs composing, &c. — rule's being observed. — of thep>"«a»- 
dfinVs neglecting to lay it before the cowuul 



226 KEV ro THE EXERCISES. 

Rule 13. Of his audience. — put it on Jacob. — sprinkle them — and th 
diall, &c. — ofjifis reputation. 

J^ote. You were blamed ; you loere worthy. — where toere you ?— how 1 a 
were you ? 

Rule 14. Who hast been, &c. — loho is tne sixth that has lost his life by 
this means. 

Who all my sense eonfmedst ; or, didst confine. 

Jfote. And toho broughtest him forth out of Ur. 

Rule 15. Who shall be sent, &c. — This is the man wAo, &c. 

Rule 16. They to whom much is given, &c. — with whom you associate, &c 
— whom I greatly respect, &c. — whom we ought to love, and to whom, Spc— 
They whom conscience, ^c. — ^With whom did you walk ? — Whom did you 
see ? — To whom did you give the book ? 

Rule 17. Who gave John those books ? We. — -him who lives in Pearl 
street — My brother and he. — She and /. 

Rule 18: JVbfe 2. Thirty ftms. — twenty feet — one hundred /afAom*. 

J^ote 6. He bought a pair of new shoes — piece of elegant furniture. — pait 
of jine horses — tract of poor land. 

J^ote 7. Are still more difficult to be comprehended. — most doubtful, or jon 
carious way, &c. — This model comes nearer perfection than any I, &c. 

Rule 19 : J</ote. That sort. — these two hours. — This kind, &c. — He sa% 
one person, or more than one, enter the garden. 

Note 2. Better than himself. — is so small. — his station may be, is boun 1 
by the laws. 

Note 3. On each side, &c. — took each his censer. 

Rule 20. Whom did they, &c. — They whom opulence, — whom luxury, &<: 
— Him and them we know, &c. — Her that is negligent, &c. — my brother 
and mc, <§c. TVhom did they send, &c. — Them whom he, &c. 

Rule 21. It is /. — If I were he. — it is Ac, indeed. — Whom do you, &c.— 
Who do men say, &c. — and who say ye, &c. — whom do you imagine it ti 
have been ?— it was /; but you knew that it was he. 

Rule 25. Bid him c<yme. — durst not do it. — Hear him read, ^c. — makes u e 
approve and reject, fyc. — better to live — than fo outlive, &c. — to wrestle. 

Rule 26 : Note. — The taking of pains : or, without taking pains, &c. 
The changing of times, — the removing and setting up o/kings. 

Rule 28 : Note 3. He did me — I had written — he came home. — befallei 
my cousin — he would have g-one. — already y-isen. — is begun. — is spoken. - 
would have written — had they written, ^c. 

Rule 29 : Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c. — he was not often pleas- 
ing. — should never be sej. crated.— We may live happily, ^c. 

Rule 30 ; Note. I don't know any thing ; or, I know nothing, &c. — I did 
not see anybody ; or, I saw nobody, ^c. — Nothing ever affects her. — and 
take no shape or semblance, &c. — There can be nothing, &c. — Neither pre- 
cept nor discipline is so forcible as example. 

Rule 31. For himself. — among themselves. — with whom he is, &c. — With 
whom did, &c. — From whom did you receive instruction ? 

Rule 33. My brother and he, &c. — You and /, ^c. He and I — ^John and 
A<, ^c. — Between you and me, ^c. 

Rule 34. And entreat me, ^c. — and acting differently, ^c. 

Note 1. But he may return — ^but he will write no more. 

Note 2. Unless it rain. — ^If he acquire riches, 4*c. 

Rule 35. Than /. — as well as he, than they. — but he. — but he and /. — Lul 
them who had gone astray. 

Promiscuous Examples. — Him who is from eternity, ^c— depends all the 
happiness, — which exists, ^c. — the enemies whom, ^c. — Is it / or he whom 
you requested ? — Though great have been, — sincerely acknowledge. — There 
was, in the metropolis. — ^exercising our meniories. — was consumed. — Afflu 
ence may give — ^but it will not. — of this world oflea choke. — Them that hon 



KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 227 

wir , — and they that despise. — I intended to call last week. — the fields look 
fi'esh and g- ay. — very neatly, finely woven paper. — where I saw Gen. Andrew 
Jackson, Awn who. — Take the first two, — last three.— thirty feet high. — a 
J, lion, — a hypothesis. — I have seen him to whom you wrote, he would have 
ome back, or returned. — understands the nat"'.e, — he r ej ects. -li thou studj^ 
—thou toili become. — is not propei^ly attended to. — He knew. — therefore, to 
iave done it. — than the title. — very independently. — duty to do. — my friend's 
entering. — is the best specimen, or it comes nearer perfection than any, 4'C. — 
blow tliem, will go, &c. — Each of those two authors has his merit. — Reason^s 
whole, — lie m. — strikes the mind, — than if the parts had been adjusted,— with 
perfect symmetry. 

Satire does not carry in it. — composes the triangle. — persons^ opportunities 
vere ever. — It has been reported. — should never be. — situation in which. — is 
horoughly versed in his — are the soul, — follows little. — An army presents, 
—are the duties of a christian. — happier than he. — always have inclined, and 
which always will incline him to offend. — which require great. — Them that 
honour me, will I. — has opinions peculiar to itself. — that it may be said he 
attained monarchical. — hast permitted, — vjilt deliver. — was formerly propa- 
gated. — the measure IS,— linvvorthy yonr.— were faithless. — After I had visited, 
—nor shall /, consent. — Yesterday I intended to walk out, but was. — make 
>r a? e thirteen, — leave three.— If he go, — make the eighth time that he will 
\ave visited.- -i« nobler. — was possessed, or that ever can be. — one great 
-difice, — smaller ones. — honesty is. — it to be. — will follow me, — I shall dwell. 
—is gone astray. — he could not have done.— feeling a propensity. 



IPUNCTUATIOIV. 
COMMA. 
Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation, 

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human 
heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a 
sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defec* 
ui character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, 
in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your fail- 
ings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and ignoF- 
ance, under costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. 
Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behaviour can 
always hide the real character. 

RULE 4. Ijord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations, 
Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou ex- 
pect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance ? Death, 
the king of terrours, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of life, sooths 
us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher, was 
eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious ex- 
ample of true piety. 
RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To 
.|)jlenjoy present pleasure, he sacnficed his future ease and reputation. His 
.jjltaients, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspio- 
.(^laous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and constant 
j(|,l)pint, will as>suredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family, 
.j(l»9aembled under the eye of one common Father. 



22S KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the 
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the 
understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a 
youth. He is alternately suppotted by his father, his uncle, and his elder 
brother. The man of virtue and honour, will be trusted, relied upon, and 
esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, and base. 
An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true, 
lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, writing, and think- 
ing, are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great busi- 
ness of Ufe is, to be employed in doing justly, loving mercy, and walking 
humbly with our God, To live soberly, righteously, and piously, compre- 
hends the whole of our duty. 

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are causes of 
decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. An 
idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy 
person had been seriously, affectionately admonished, but in vain. 

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friend 
ships of the world can exist no longer^ than interest cements them. Eai 
what is set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. 
A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent 
words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our com- 
plaints of the world, are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object in 
its just proportion, and in its fairest colours. In that unaffected civiUty which 
springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable charm. The Lord, 
whom I serve, is eternal. This istlie man we saw yesterday. 

RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. 
True friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behaviour. Health 
and peace, a moderate fortune, and afew friends, sum up all the undoubted 
articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uni- 
form and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies 
and the vigour of our minds. 

RULE 9. As a companion, he v/as severe and satirical ; as a friend, cap 
tious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there 
will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be trifled away 
without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old age, miserable. 

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the 
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned 
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be con- 
demned by our own hearts. 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path ; that of falsehood 
is a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and frendship; 
hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, which 
God perceives to be no other than disguised misery ; as there are worldly 
honours, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a worldly 
wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness. 

But all subsists by elemental strife ; 

And passions are the elements of life. 

COLON. 

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, 
and idleness : vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions ; 
luperstition, which fills it with imaginary terrours ; idleness, which loads U 
with tediousness and disgust. 



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